Uncal BP Research Articles

Holocene peopling and sea-level changes along the northern coast of the Arabian Sea (Pakistan)

Surveys carried out in the provinces of Las Bela and Lower Sindh (Pakistan) have led to the discovery of many concentrations of knapped stone artefacts associated with mangrove and sea shells. The most important group of sites has been discovered along the shores of Lake Siranda (Balochistan) and on the limestone terraces that rise from the Indus Plain in Lower Sindh. The radiocarbon dates obtained from the Lake Siranda sites have shown that the ancient lagoon was seasonally settled between the last two centuries of the 8th and the end of the 5th millennium uncal BP that is from the beginning of the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. Although more research is needed, we now know the important role played by the coastal zones of Las Bela and Lower Sindh in the Holocene archaeology of the Arabian Sea, the only region of the northern coastline that has provided evidence of Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement. The Neolithic knapped stones discovered during the surveys consist of bladelet artefacts and geometric microliths made from local cherts, while the Chalcolithic Amri Culture implements are obtained from exotic flint. Since the beginning of the Holocene the coastal zone has been affected by dramatic events among which are sea-level rise, tectonic activity, subsidence, and the advance of the Indus Delta. The present landscape shaped around the end of the Bronze Age, when arid conditions established and the Indus Civilisation declined. Unfortunately many of the coastal sites are in danger or have been destroyed by industrial development.

Taphonomic data from the transitional Aurignacian of El Castillo cave (Spain) reveals the role of carnivores at the Aurignacian Delta level

Palaeolithic sites are complex palimpsests due to the recurrent presence of human groups and carnivores through time, as documented in several European caves and rock shelters. Within these contexts, it can be challenging to identify the main contributors to bone accumulations and interpret human subsistence strategies and the role of carnivores. Consequently, taphonomic analyses are crucial for distinguishing the origins of these occupation episodes. One example of alternating occupations is found at El Castillo cave (Cantabria, Spain), specifically in the so-called Transitional Aurignacian level (∼46-42 ka uncal BP). According to a recent study conducted at this level (Luret et al., 2020), the human groups had a hunting specialisation focused on red deer, while carnivores had little influence on the assemblage. However, these interpretations were based only on the faunal assemblage from the recent excavations (1980–2011). A previous excavation phase was conducted on this site from 1910 to 1914, and after that, the faunal remains recovered were separated across several institutions, lacking a complete archaeozoological and taphonomic analysis of the whole level. In this work, a new taxonomic assessment and, for the first time, a taphonomic study of the macrofauna recovered in the Aurignacian Delta level during the initial excavations, stored at Museo Nacional y Centro de Investigación de Altamira (Cantabria, Spain), is carried out. This work provides new information about the human and carnivore groups that occupied El Castillo, constructing new hypotheses to interpret this relevant archaeological level.

The Nubian Levallois technology in central Syria in the context of the Middle–Upper Palaeolithic transitional period and the IUP variability in the Eastern Mediterranean Levant

This article focuses on the Nubian Levallois technology first recognized in northeastern Africa in the 1960s. Now, sites of the Middle Stone Age (MSA) Nubian Complex associated with Homo sapiens are known to occupy vast areas in northeastern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Recently, proper Nubian Levallois technology has been recognized at sites in southern Africa and the southern part of the Eastern Mediterranean Levant as well. Here we report several sites with Nubian Levallois artefacts from central Syria, a Levantine region geographically closer to Arabia than Africa, where such technology had not been identified previously. The analyzed lithic assemblages share the same techno-typological characteristics. Technologically, they feature a newly recognized “developed Nubian Type 2-method, single-platform unidirectional convergent, Jerf Ajla/Qalta-type core” or shortly, “Jerf Ajla/Qalta-type Nubian” cores and method. This method was geared towards the serial production of pointed blades and Levallois points on blades in a single core reduction cycle. This differs from other Nubian core reduction methods, which tend to focus on producing a single pointed flake or Levallois point on a flake in each reduction cycle of a core. Typologically, the investigated Syrian assemblages are dominated by Upper Palaeolithic tool classes and types, especially endscrapers and burins. Besides the lithic data, these assemblages are assumed to be older than 33–36 uncal ka BP measured at the sites Jerf al-Ajla and Umm el-Tlel. We argue that central Syrian assemblages with Nubian methods can be dated to the transitional period between the Middle Palaeolithic or Middle Stone Age and the Upper Palaeolithic, more precisely, to the Initial Upper Palaeolithic (IUP). Thus, the developed character of the Jerf Ajla/Qalta-type Nubian cores does not only adds to the variability of the Nubian Levallois technology but also explains its absence in MSA locations in Africa and Arabia, and its presence in the IUP Levant. Accepting this, we propose the name “Jerf Ajla/Qalta industry” for these particular Nubian-related IUP assemblages and sites in central Syria. In doing so, a second IUP industry is now recognized by us in the Levant, in addition to the Early Emiran, known for its improved Nubian 1 method with opposed-platform cores and a new hunting projectile type, the Emireh point. Both IUP industries appeared in the Levant as a result of Homo sapiens migration with different Nubian-related knapping traditions from Africa and Arabia into the neighbouring Eastern Mediterranean Levant. The Early Emiran is considered to be a successful IUP industry in the Levant, as a predecessor of the IUP Late Emiran and Early Upper Palaeolithic (EUP) Early Ahmarian industries. Moreover, parts of the population carrying this industry even spread beyond southwestern Asia to other Eurasian regions, heralded by new IUP and EUP industries there. However, the Jerf Ajla/Qalta industry and its makers did not continue to survive in the Levant.

The Šenov-Salaš 1 and 4 Upper Palaeolithic sites and settlement and procurement strategies in the Aurignacian of the Moravian Gate

AbstractTechno-typological analysis of two chipped stone assemblages from Šenov-Salaš 1 and 4 in the Moravian Gate (Czech Republic) indicates they belong to the Aurignacian. The two assemblages, preferentially made of Baltic (erratic) flints, comprise few distinctive tool types, though. A statistical analysis was conducted to compare their raw material strategy, tool typology, and topography with other Moravian Aurignacian sites. It transpired that they answer to other Aurignacian sites in their specific topography, raw material strategy, and (a few) Aurignacian endscrapers, but both assemblages comprise few carinated burins. The altitude here is somewhat higher than that for most Moravian Aurignacian sites, but it is still probable that the two assemblages belong to the Aurignacian and that their rather atypical aspect (the small dimensions of artefacts, simple core preparation, few distinctive tools) are due to the small size of the processed flint nodules, which did not allow for thorough core preparation. Predominant plain butts, the virtual absence of archaic, or other distinctive tool types speak for either Evolved Aurignacian or some specific Aurignacian facies of the Moravian Gate. The assemblages cannot be linked with the young AMS 14C date 14 270 ± 40 uncal BP, acquired from a bone from the surface at Salaš 1, just slightly preceding the Moravian Magdalenian, as such a date would be too young not only for any Aurignacian but also for Epiaurignacian sites. Still, the Aurignacian estimation of the assemblages is interesting as the Moravian Gate comprises relatively few sites attributed to this Upper Palaeolithic culture.

Molodovo V (Ukraine): spatial and contextual study of Gravettian levels 10, 9 & 8

Molodovo V is one of Ukraine’s key-sites for the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic. Since its excavation in the 1950’s and 1960’s, this sequence has been a cornerstone for the chrono-cultural framework in the Dniestr valley and adjacent areas. The site is also an important contributor to the issue of the Gravettian emergence. With radiocarbon dates around 29–28 ka uncal BP, its cultural levels 10 and 9 stand as the first Gravettian occurrence in this region, and as one of the earliest in Europe. However, this early presence of the Gravettian is relatively questionable, as it is challenged by the late Aurignacian presence in the neighbouring site of Mitoc-Malu Galben (Romania) which extends until 27.7 ka BP. Despite the consistency of the sedimentary and paleoenvironmental studies at Molodovo V, the archaeological artefacts did not benefit from extensive studies since the excavations – except for typological classification. This paper thus aims at clarifying the association of the lithic materials with the sedimentary stratigraphy and associated dates. Three types of analyses have been realized to check the conditions in which the cultural levels 10, 9 and 8 were excavated, labelled and attributed: a spatial analysis of the lithic artefacts, a refit analysis focused on inter-levels connexions and a spatial study of the position of the Upper Palaeolithic combustion features. Consequently, it appears that most artefacts from levels 10 and 9, and a majority of materials from level 8, are not reliably associated to the sedimentary stratigraphy and dates. Thus, there is no ascertained Gravettian presence in Molodovo V before its level 8, imprecisely dated between 27.000 and 25.000 uncal BP. Key words: Upper Palaeolithic, Gravettian, Ukraine, spatial analysis.

MesoRAD: A New Radiocarbon Data Set for Archaeological Research in Mesoamerica

The Mesoamerican Radiocarbon Database (MesoRAD) compiles radiocarbon dates from the archaeological literature of Mesoamerica. The inaugural data set, ‘Lowland Maya Dates’, includes 1846 radiocarbon dates from 132 sites in 21 distinct environmental zones in the Maya lowlands. These data span the Paleoindian to Colonial Periods (11,670 to 190 uncal BP, 13,740 cal BP to modern) across southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras. Here, we describe the methods used to compile and organize these dates, including the spatial, chronological, and environmental coverage of the data set.

“Poor” archeological levels not to be forgotten: units of Middle and early Upper Magdalenian age in El Mirón Cave (Ramales de la Victoria, Cantabria, Spain)

This succinct contribution focuses on description and preliminary interpretation of “minor” occupations of the large, strategically located El Mirón Cave on the edge of the Cantabrian Cordillera in eastern Cantabria (Spain) during the Middle and early Upper Magalenian that followed upon the massive, culturally rich, faunally dense, functionally complex deposits of the Initial and Lower Magdalenian. The ten levels analyzed here date to the Late Glacial, c. 15.5-12.5 uncal kya BP. At a time when the classic Middle Magdalenian of the nearby French Pyrenees developed and major residential sites with clear social links to it (via the key site of Isturitz) were occupied in the lowland coastal zone of Cantabria and Asturias (e.g. La Garma, Llonín, La Viña), El Mirón had reverted for the most part to the role of a short-term, special-purpose, perhaps logistical campsite, rather than as a long-term, large-scale hub residential base. It is tempting (and indeed traditional) to focus on levels with large numbers of lithic and osseous artifacts, as well as works of portable art and personal ornaments, which are so characteristic of the most famous Magdalenian occupations. However, in hunter-gatherer subsistence systems, the “minor” locations played a significant role in the human exploitation of territories (especially ones with such complex, high relief as Cantabrian Spain). The levels in question here include some that can be interpreted as hunting camps (suggested by high percentages of worked and unworked bladelets and some antler points within the small assemblages), partially reminiscent of the use to which the cave may have been put during pre-Initial Magdalenian times, notably during the Solutrean, which was relatively rich in stone points.

Mesolithic Pyrotechnology: Practices and Perceptions in Early Holocene Coastal Norway

Substantial pyrotechnological structures and large quantities of charcoal are rarely found on Early Holocene sites in coastal Norway. Nevertheless, information on the use of fire and fuel types is available and presented in this article, a survey of sites dating from 10,000 to 8000 uncalbp.Possible fuel types and preferences are discussed and it is argued that most fires would have been small and short-lived, making extensive use of low vegetation. This suggests that food must have been largely consumed raw, fermented, or dried. The distinction between the use of shrubs and trees must have had implications for the perception of their properties, which appear to have persisted even after the emergence of more forested landscapes.

The Preliminary Analysis of Cave Lion Cubs Panthera spelaea (Goldfuss, 1810) from the Permafrost of Siberia

A preliminary description is presented of the well-preserved frozen mummies of two cubs of the extinct cave lion Panthera spelaea (finds of 2017–2018, Semyuelyakh River, Yakutia, eastern Siberia, Russia). The fossil lion cubs were found in close proximity, but they do not belong to the same litter, since their radiocarbon ages differ: the female (named ‘Sparta’) was dated to 27,962 ± 109 uncal years BP, and the male (named ‘Boris’) was dated to 43,448 ± 389 uncal years BP. The lion cubs have similar individual ages, 1–2 months. The general tone of the colour of the fur coat of Sparta is greyish to light brown, whereas, in Boris, the fur is generally lighter, greyish yellowish. It is, therefore, possible that light colouration prevailed with age in cave lions and was adaptive for northern snow-covered landscapes. The article discusses the results of computed tomography of cubs of the cave lion, the possible reasons for their death, and the peculiarities of their existence in the Siberian Arctic.

A chrono-cultural reassessment of levels III-V from El Cuco rock-shelter: a new sequence for the late Middle Palaeolithic – early Upper Palaeolithic boundary in the Cantabrian region (northern Iberia)

The Iberian Peninsula is one of the key areas for studying the last populations of Neanderthals and the arrival in Europe of the first anatomically modern humans. In the Cantabrian region, this process can be traced in just a few sites with levels dating to the final stages of the Middle Palaeolithic and the earliest phases of the Upper Palaeolithic. One of these singular enclaves is El Cuco rock-shelter, where the sequence was initially dated by 14C only to the early Upper Palaeolithic sensu lato. However, new studies and datings now place this archaeological sequence in the late Mousterian and the Aurignacian. In this article we present a chrono-cultural reassessment of the upper levels of El Cuco (III-V), including a study of the large mammals. Levels Vc and Vb (>43.5-40.5 ky uncal BP) date from the late Mousterian, whereas levels Va, IV and III (c. 36.5-30 ky uncal BP) cover an interval extending at least from the Early Aurignacian to the Evolved Aurignacian. Particularly noteworthy is the discovery in level Va of a set of decorative beads made from marine shells in a context of possible symbolic behaviour.

Морфологический анализ скорлупы яиц страуса из плейстоценовых и голоценовых местонахождений Монголии

Ostrich eggshell bead-making appears relatively early in regions inhabited by ostriches. This type of personal ornamentation emerged in Central Asia together with human populations associated with the laminar Initial Upper Paleolithic culture about 45,000 uncal BP or slightly earlier. Eggshell beads and pendants occur in Central Asia until the Middle Holocene, while the technology of bead-making underwent changes throughout this period. Although beads and eggshell fragments are quite common in Paleolithic sites, ostrich bones are extremely rare. Ostrich taxonomy is based on eggshell analysis, principally on shell thickness variability. Here, we present the results of an additional investigative approach aimed at taxonomic determination - analysis of eggshell pore patterns. We applied this method to samples found over a wide area in Mongolia - from the Middle Selenga Basin in the north to the Gobi Desert in the south. Samples of beads and eggshells were recovered from archaeological sites in cultural layers ranging from the Initial Upper Paleolithic to the Early Holocene Mesolithic. Our experimental studies included the fabrication offossilized (ostrich) and fresh (emu) eggshell beads to better understand the character ofvisible traces that appear on the shell surfaces after drilling and polishing. Namibian ethnographic beads made of S. camelus australis eggshell were also analyzed to compare interspecies pore patterns. This research targets taxonomic determination of the ostrich species that co-existed with humans in eastern Central Asia during the Pleistocene. Another focus of this analysis is the use of fossilized ostrich eggshell by Pleistocene hominins.

THE AMVROSIIVKA BISON BONE BED AND FEATURES OF ITS USE

The Amvrosiivka Upper Palaeolithic complex, composed of a camp site and nearby bison bone bed is located in the Donetsk oblast’, at the top of the Kazenna ravine, a right tributary of the Krynka river, which drains into the Mius river. The site is dated by an average of 19000—18000 uncal BP and belong to Epigravettian tradition.
 The results of the long-term research the Amvrosiivka bison bone bed was analyzed in the article. The features of topography (a gully-terrace on board of a ravine), planigraphy, stratigraphy of a bone bed (the ledges-thresholds and some sterile layers in cultural remains distribution), and also the seasons of the kill of animals (alternative, with prevalence of cold) was summarized.
 Data about the bison bones (Bison priscus, MNI = 650 and bones with cultural modifications) is presented. The prevalence of the hunter projectile weapon details (27 bone points and about 90 flint micropoints-inserts), and also flint tools for butchering animals among the archaeological finds is determined.
 The interpretation of the bone bed at the same times was controversial: as a refuse dump near dwelling (Evseev), as a resulted from a one-time (Pidoplichko) or repeated (Efimenko) mass drive of bison, or as a ritual locale (Boriskovskij). At present the site is interpreted as a place of numerous mass drive of bison and, mainly, primary butchering of hunting bag, and also, probably, storages of meat products in the form of the frozen carcasses of bison in a cold season (Krotova, Snizhko, Julien).
 The ethnoarchaeological data about methods of collective kills by Paleoindian and Indian pedestrian hunters on bison of the North America (Frison 2004) for the reconstruction of possible variants of the mass drive of bison in Amvrosiivka is used. The conclusion is made that for the purpose organization of the series of mass drive of bison at different seasons the hunters in Amvrosiivka used a natural trap — the gully-terrace on a board of ravine — the right tributary of a Kazenna ravine. This terrace with one abrupt and rather high (4—5 m) board, obviously, used for a drive of bison from above, a plateau (method of «jump») that the hunters, obviously, at a certain stage having added with the restraining structure (pens) which should keep the escaped and wounded animals. The variant of a possible shelter from below, a thalweg of the Kazenna ravine (an «arroyo trap» method) also is not excluded.

Paleogenetic and morphometric analysis of a Mesolithic individual from Grotta d’Oriente: An oldest genetic legacy for the first modern humans in Sicily

Grotta d’Oriente, a coastal cave located on the island of Favignana (Sicily, Italy) is a key site for the study of the early human colonization of Sicily. Inside the cave, during different field excavations, three burials attributable to the Late Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic were found. The Mesolithic Oriente B individual, directly dated at 9,377 ± 25 uncal BP, was previously assigned to HV1 haplogroup using a traditional approach. However, it is well known that PCR based methods are prone to erroneous haplotype or haplogroup determination. In order to redefine the mitochondrial lineage of this Mesolithic hunter-gatherer and explore its phylogenetic position, we target-enriched and sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome of Oriente B. Moreover, we conducted a morphometric analysis to assess its phenetic affinities.Oriente B individual was classified into U2′3′4′7′8′9 haplogroup. In Sicily, this lineage has also been found on the Upper Palaeolithic Oriente C and Early Mesolithic individuals from Grotta dell’Uzzo. Our results show significant genetic and morphological similarities in Sicilian Early Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, presumably because of genetic drift processes. Furthermore, dating the emergence of the “Sicilian clade”, we speculate that Epigravettian hunter-gatherers carrying U2′3′4′7′8′9 haplogroup might be the first settlers of Sicily arrived from the Italian peninsula by the crossing of a temporary land-bridge around the Last Glacial Maximum.

Gravettian backed points from Unit K11 of Dolní Věstonice II (South Moravia, Czech Republic)

The stone hunting points have generated substantial interest and it is often used as a fossil guide to enable the identification and characterization of complex technologies or “cultures”. However, the armatures remain poorly understood in Central Europe, despite various original types. This paper explains the key points from Unit K11 of Dolní Věstonice II (South Moravia, Czech Republic). The collection is not directly dated; however, through the typology, it is included in the Gravettian sensu lato. Despite the limited sample of 33 fragments of armatures, it is possible to identify recurrent features. These stone artifacts differ slightly from the other microliths of the Pavlovian sensu stricto, which are dated 27,500–25,500 uncal BP. The main objectives of this article are to report the presence of and describe the microlithic points and to discuss possible analogies.

The Upper and Final Gravettian in Western Slovakia and Moravia. Different approaches, new questions

This paper presents a discussion of Late and Final Gravettian assemblages from Western Slovakia and Moravia (25,500/24,000 – 22,000 uncal BP). Shouldered points and Kostienki knives have historically been widely used as fossiles directeurs for these assemblages and have been seen as the most reliable features for cultural attribution. Nevertheless, recent studies of lithics, osseous artifacts (from bone, antler and ivory) and subsistence strategies demonstrate significant variability. The main aim of this paper is to discuss the heterogeneity of the “post-Pavlovian” sites, based on studies of selected localities, namely Milovice I, Petřkovice I, Moravany-Lopata II, Moravany-Žakovská and Trenčianske Bohuslavice-Pod Tureckom. Additionally, we propose a description of artifacts which might become new lithic fossiles directeurs (Petřkovice bi-truncated elements). Finally, we discuss the effectiveness of traditional fossiles directeurs in the description of this period and in studying analogies with Eastern Europe

The Upper Palaeolithic site Doroshivtsi III: A new chronostratigraphic and environmental record of the Late Pleniglacial in the regional context of the Middle Dniester-Prut loess domain (Western Ukraine)

A multidisciplinary study of the Upper Palaeolithic site Doroshivtsi III (Western Ukraine) allows the establishment of a high-resolution chronostratigraphic and environmental record of short climatic oscillations during the Late Pleniglacial (from ca. 23 ka uncal BP to the Late Glacial). Chronostratigraphic records, radiocarbon dating, palynology and anthracology were used in parallel with archaeological studies. Palaeoenvironmental interpretations based on pedostratigraphy and pollen data show a remarkable concordance. The Doroshivtsi III sequence provides a succession of 12 short-time interstadial events. In the lower part of the sequence, they are separated by very cold and wet stadials, represented by tundra gleys. In the middle part of the sequence, interstadial events are separated by episodes of loess accumulation under cold and dry climate, whereas the upper part of the sequence almost completely consists of loesses. The sum of pollen of arcto-alpine and arcto-boreal plants was the largest during the periods of tundra gley formation, whereas few pollen grains of broad-leaved taxa occurred during formation of some soil horizons. The latter allows the preliminary suggestion that during the Late Pleniglacial some temperate trees persisted to the south from the Middle Dniester Valley. The Doroshivtsi III sequence is well correlated with the other East Carpathian records (Molodova, Mitoc and Cosautsi), and allows the establishment of a very complete record of climatic oscillations in this area from 33 ka BP to the beginning of the Holocene. It also provides a link for the correlation with the interstadial events 8 to 1 of the Greenland Ice Sequence.

The beginning of the Neolithic on the Upper Volga (Russia)

The appearance of the Neolithic in the Upper Volga region is to be associated with infiltrations of notch-ware pottery-makers into the indigenous Mesolithic populations. Most likely the first vessels were imported into the region as final goods. The undistinguished differences between the Final Mesolithic and the Early Neolithic stone industries prove that this invasion was not a largescale one. This episode should be regarded as transitional from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic (i.e., as part of the process of Neolithisation). The non-ornamented/notch-ware ceramics tradition first established in the local cultural environment was soon after discontinued by the appearance of the populations with multi-compound comb-ware pottery about 6500-6400 uncal BP.

The beginning of the Neolithic on the Upper Volga (Russia)

The appearance of the Neolithic in the Upper Volga region is to be associated with infiltrations of notch-ware pottery-makers into the indigenous Mesolithic populations. Most likely the first vessels were imported into the region as final goods. The undistinguished differences between the Final Mesolithic and the Early Neolithic stone industries prove that this invasion was not a largescale one. This episode should be regarded as transitional from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic (i.e., as part of the process of Neolithisation). The non-ornamented/notch-ware ceramics tradition first established in the local cultural environment was soon after discontinued by the appearance of the populations with multi-compound comb-ware pottery about 6500-6400 uncal BP.

Medical imaging as a taphonomic tool

Purpose Medical imaging applied to archaeological human remains represents a powerful tool for the study of specimens of exceptionally fragile nature. Here, the authors report a tomographic computerized investigation on the naturally mummified human remains from the Takarkori rock shelter (Libyan Sahara), dated to the Middle Pastoral Neolithic (ca. 6100-5600 uncal BP). The paper aims to discuss this issue. Design/methodology/approach Medical radiological techniques allowed us to discriminate and isolate the tissues preserved thanks to their different electron density, driving us to detailed examinations of features of interest. Findings With a focus on anatomy and taphonomy, the authors infer on post-depositional phenomena in a way that could not be achieved through traditional approaches. Originality/value The investigation of digital data allows to acquire new sets of information with no risk for the original object. This case study is especially important considering that the human remains from Takarkori are currently not available to the scientific community due to political instability in Lybia.

The earliest direct evidence of mammoth hunting in Central Europe – The Kraków Spadzista site (Poland)

The oldest unequivocal evidence of mammoth hunting in prehistoric Central Europe has been found in the Gravettian archaeological site Kraków Spadzista (Poland). The site contains thousands of lithic artifacts and the remains of >100 woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius), with radiocarbon dates clustering ∼25–24 ka uncal BP. A fragment of a flint shouldered point is embedded in a mammoth rib, and more than 50% of the site's flint shouldered points and backed blades bear diagnostic traces of hafting and impact damage from use as spear tips. Additional support for mammoth killing is the mortality profile of 112 mammoths from the site: some age groups may have been depleted due to recurring heavy hunting by humans during periods of environmental stress. The evidence for intensive human hunting could portend a development thousands of years later, at the end of the Pleistocene, when climate-caused habitat changes were more extreme, and, in combination with opportunistic human hunting, may have led to woolly mammoth extinction.