Types Of Aggressive Behavior Research Articles

Agresiones en el noviazgo: Un estudio con adolescentes de Heredia (Costa Rica)

Recibido 12 de setiembre de 2014 • Corregido 15 de junio de 2015 • Aceptado 31 de julio de 2015Gran parte del comportamiento agresivo humano se da en el contexto de una relación amorosa. El colectivo adolescente no es una excepción: las investigaciones señalan una notable prevalencia de este problema, evidenciándose la necesidad de profundizar en su estudio, especialmente en Iberoamérica, dada la escasez de trabajos al respecto. Este estudio tiene como objetivos fortalecer el conocimiento sobre el comportamiento agresivo en parejas adolescentes de Costa Rica. Para ello, se toman en consideración diferentes formas de agresión, en lugar de analizar únicamente agresiones físicas o sexuales; además se estudian posibles diferencias en función del sexo. Basándose en un diseño ex post facto, se aplica un instrumento estandarizado a 468 adolescentes de Heredia (Costa Rica), que analiza cinco formas de agresión: verbal-emocional; física; sexual; relacional y amenazas. Los resultados muestran que son escasos los participantes en la investigación que no cometieron o sufrieron alguna agresión en pareja, especialmente verbales-emocionales o verbales-emocionales y sexuales, si bien la frecuencia de estas fue baja; además, se detectan algunas diferencias significativas intersexos. De los hallazgos obtenidos se concluye la existencia de dificultades en los adolescentes para afrontar, de forma constructiva, conflictos que se presentan en sus relaciones, algo que debe ser abordado de manera integral para incrementar la eficacia de los programas preventivos para jóvenes.

Teachers’ Perception of Aggressive Behaviour in Children: Case of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Aggressive behaviour in children and youth is a widespread phenomenon. Antisocial behaviour that includes certain kind of aggressive behaviour can occur and disappear again during a child’s development. However, from a psychological perspective aggression can be one of the problematic types of behaviour in children with long-lasting negative consequences. The aim of this research is to examine teachers’ perceptions of the types of aggressive behaviour as well as to find out the causes for the development of aggressiveness in school-age children in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) from teacher’s point of view. In order to define and classify the types of aggressive behavior in school age children in BiH, descriptive method was used. For understanding phenomena of aggression and identification of its cause(s), explanatory method was used . In order to examine teachers’ perceptions of the types of aggressive behaviour as well as the causes for the development of aggressiveness, assessment scales for teachers’ perceptions were used. The research findings indicate that proactive, reactive, and relational types of aggression are most often seen in school-age children from teachers’ perceptions. The causes of aggressive behaviour range widely: Aggressive behaviour occurs as a combination of internal impulses and external stimuli or triggers that indicate possible aggression so temperament as well as environmental factors can influence the development of aggressiveness; aggressive behaviour is acquired through learning by observing and imitating model; the role of parents and their way of disciplining a child is another important cause; the mass media is seen as important cause of aggressive behaviour.

A Survey of Self-Reported Relationship Experiences of Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence.

To the Editor: The extant empirical literature on intimate partner violence understandably focuses on the perceptions and experiences of victims, who are most often women. In this context, the literature emphasizes such aspects as the types of aggressive behaviors exhibited by perpetrators, childhood experiences of victims, predictors of violence, attitudes and screening by health care professionals, psychological sequelae for victims, psychological characteristics of batterers, and models of change. However, a search of the PubMed database conducted in November 2014 using various terms (perpetrators, batterers, self-awareness, self-disclosure, relationships) failed to reveal any self-reports of perpetrators’ perceptions of their relationships with partners during their lifetimes. In this study, we examined 4 perceptions of relationships with partners throughout the lifespan among a population of men who were court-ordered to treatment because of the perpetration of intimate partner violence. Method. Participants in this study were adult US men who were court-referred to a group educational intervention for the perpetration of partner violence in 1 of 4 different treatment facilities. After receiving approval from agency executive directors, the recruiter (K.E.) met with 24 different treatment groups, enrolled 170 male participants, obtained signed consent forms, and provided surveys for completion in-group and onsite. The study was conducted from June 2013 to October 2013. The survey contained the Self-Harm Inventory1 (labeled as such), which includes the following 4 items preceded by “Have you ever intentionally, or on purpose”: (1) “been promiscuous,” (2) “set yourself up in a relationship to be rejected,” (3) “engaged in emotionally abusive relationships,” and (4) “engaged in sexually abusive relationships.” Each item has a yes/no response option. Participants were advised to not identify themselves on the surveys. Completed surveys were placed into sealed envelopes and given to the researcher. The project was approved by an institutional review board. Results. Because respondents were asked to indicate which of the listed age ranges applied to them, precise ages are indeterminable. However, all respondents checked a range falling between 18 and 65 years of age, with most (71.2%) indicating an age between 21 and 40 years. The most common self-reported race or ethnicity was white (40.6%), followed by black (21.2%), Native American (13.5%), Hispanic (12.4%), other (12.4%), and Asian (0.0%). Of the 170 respondents, 102 (60.0%) reported intentionally having been promiscuous, 47 (27.6%) reported having set themselves up in a relationship to be rejected, 97 (57.1%) reported having engaged in emotionally abusive relationships, and 18 (10.6%) reported having engaged in sexually abusive relationships. Only 36 participants (21.2%) endorsed none of these behaviors, whereas 45 (26.5%) endorsed 1 behavior, 53 (31.2%) endorsed 2 behaviors, 31 (18.2%) endorsed 3 behaviors, and 5 (2.9%) endorsed all 4 behaviors. Findings indicate that a substantial proportion of male perpetrators of intimate partner violence acknowledge various self-harming patterns in their relationships with partners (eg, more than 20% reported at least 3 such behaviors), indicating an awareness of these self-victimizing patterns. Potential limitations of this study include the small sample size, the self-report methodology of the study (ie, responses may have been compromised by embarrassment, deceit, repression, suppression), and severity of perpetration (ie, participants were court-ordered, which may limit the ability to generalize findings to less severe populations of perpetrators). Similarly, we lacked data on whether some of the participants may have received psychotherapy treatment (note that the current intervention was educational in nature and in group format, not psychological or individualized). Overall, the salient point of this study is that a substantial proportion of men disclosed an awareness of a number of self-defeating/self-victimizing relationship patterns with their intimate partners—a finding that to our knowledge is novel to the literature. This awareness may serve as a potential catalyst for therapeutic change.

Aggressive Behavior of Students in Serbia

Aggressive behavior is a complex phenomenon that attracts attention because of it’s reinforced in the modern world, and whose long-term study didn’t give any permanent solution to combat this, certainly undesirable behaviors. The reason for the study of aggressive behavior in primary schools is that the school as an institution, which are traditionally considered safe place of children today become a place where more and more present increased aggressiveness students. School climate, school organization and it’s work can pose to students as a protective factor, and so disturbing factor and cause behavioral problems in students. At school there are many different social situations and contacts, some of which are risk factors for the emergence and expression of aggressive student behavior. Therefore, we need to determine what are the situations in the everyday school, which can be a potential source of aggression. The goal of our research is to determine what the type of aggressive behavior are represented in the school and to determine which school situations lead to the manifestation of aggressive behavior in students. Levels of aggression among older elementary and high school students is extremely high, with all the dramatic consequences, even though research shows that aggression and violence by the age groups of students in Serbia is below the average of other countries.

Moral Disengagement Moderates the Link Between Psychopathic Traits and Aggressive Behavior Among Early Adolescents

This study investigated the relationships between three psychopathic dimensions (callousness/unemotionality, grandiosity/manipulation, and impulsivity/irresponsibility) and reactive and instrumental aggression in a community sample of early adolescents ( N = 243, age M = 12.29, SD = 1.18). The moderating role of moral disengagement (MD) was also tested. The findings from structural equation modeling (SEM) showed that impulsivity/irresponsibility was directly related to reactive but not instrumental aggression. Grandiosity/manipulation was related to both types of aggressive behavior. Moreover, MD was a significant moderator of these associations. Specifically, the positive relationship between grandiose-manipulative traits and instrumental aggression was stronger at high levels of MD. Impulsive-irresponsible traits were positively related to reactive aggression at only low levels of MD and negatively related to instrumental aggression at high levels of MD. Overall, our results highlight the enabling role of MD in aggressive behavior and show that this relationship varies for the different traits associated with psychopathy.

Validation of the Impulsive/Premeditated Aggression Scale in Mexican psychiatric patients

Introduction: Aggression has been linked to several psychiatric disorders. None of the available instruments validated in Mexico is able to classify aggression as impulsive or premeditated. The Impulsive/Premeditated Aggression Scale (IPAS) is a self-report instrument designed to characterize aggressiveness as predominately impulsive or premeditated. Objective: The aim of the study was to determine the validity and reliability of the IPAS in a sample of Mexican psychiatric patients. Method: A total of 163 patients diagnosed with affective, anxiety or psychotic disorder were included. A principal-component factor analysis was performed to obtain construct validity of the IPAS impulsive and premeditated aggression subscales; convergent validity as well as internal consistency of subscales were also determined. Results: The rotated matrix accounted for 33.4% of the variance. Significant values were obtained for convergent validity and reliability of the IPAS subscales. Conclusion: The IPAS is an adequate instrument, which might be used to differentiate the type of aggressive behavior in Mexican psychiatric patients.

The Relationship Between Unstable Self-Esteem and Aggression

This study examines whether the instability of self-esteem (i.e., a high intraindividual variability in self-esteem) is differentially associated with different types of aggressive behavior by using a sample of 235 preadolescent children. Self-esteem was measured four times for four consecutive days, and proactive and reactive aggressive behaviors were assessed by peer nominations. The latent trait-state-occasion model was used to describe the stable trait and the fluctuating state components of self-esteem. The empirical results indicated that the state component of self-esteem, not the trait component, had a significant association with aggressive behaviors. When controlling the trait component, the state component was positively related to reactive aggression and negatively related to proactive aggression. Implications for future research were discussed.

Relation between parental conflict and psychosocial problems among young adolescents

Hostile and constructively unresolved conflicts between parents are damaging for the positive family environment and, therefore, can have a negative impact on the psychosocial functioning of their children. The impact of the interparental conflict on children depends on the way in which parents express and resolve their disagreement and, also, in the way in which children interpret its meaning and its implication for their wellbeing. Thus, this paper seeks to examine the extent in which a child’s perceptions of the interparental conflict explain the disorder in psychosocial adjustment of a child. In other words, various dimensions of a parental conflict were examined (i.e. conflict characteristics, their appraisals of threat and self-blame) to explain the presence of internal (depression symptoms) and external (proactive and reactive aggression symptoms) problems in young adolescents. The research was carried out on 352 school children who were at an average of 13 years of age (of which 192 were girls and 160 were boys). The analyses examining the differences between boys and girls show that boy are more likely to express proactive and reactive types of aggressive behaviour and to self-blame for the interparental conflict. More so, results of the regression analysis show that frequent exposure to a highly hostile internparental conflicts and aggression can result in a proactive aggressive behaviour in boys. On the other hand, perceptions of threat during the interparental conflict significantly explain the reactive aggressive behaviour in girls. More so, the perception of threat dimension further explains presence of the depression symptoms in boys and girls. Furthermore, the self-blame dimension has been another significant depression symptoms predictor in girls.

Lien entre comportements agressifs et vécu dépressif chez l’adolescent. Une étude transversale menée au centre psychiatrique d’orientation et d’accueil de l’hôpital Sainte-Anne

The link between depression and aggressive behavior in adults has been found in many studies. In adolescents, this relationship is still controversial. Several studies point out that irritability is a key symptom in adolescent depressed. Few studies have analyzed precisely the kind of aggressive behavior. This study sets out to assess the relationship between aggressive behavior and depressive affects in adolescents. We also pay attention in this population to hopelessness feelings, anxiety, global functioning and the type of aggressive behavior. This is a descriptive and observational cross-sectional study. Data was collected from 49 successive adolescents admitted for a 24-hour evaluation in the emergency department of the Sainte-Anne psychiatric hospital. The inclusion period was from February to April 2012, with age limits between 15 and 18. For each patient, the clinician completed with the parents or other caregivers the Modified Overt Aggressive Scale (MOAS) searching for existence of aggressive behavior in the week prior to the consultation. The population was divided into two groups: P- group when the MOAS score was < 3 and the P+ group when the MOAS score was ≥ 3. The Global Assessment of Functioning Scale and Adolescent Depression Rating Scale for clinicians (ADRSc) were also completed. Each patient completed the self-report Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (QA), the Beck Hopelessness scale and the Adolescent Depression Rating Scale for patients (ADRSp). Forty-nine adolescents with a median age of 16 years and 4 months participated. The first reason for consultation was depressive symptoms, followed by disruptive behavior. The analysis was conducted on 39 questionnaires. The demographic profile of the two groups was similar. We did not find any significant difference between the groups P+ and P- on ADRSc scores and secondary criteria. However, we found higher scores in the QA in the more depressed patient, especially a higher hostility score in this sample. In the subgroup analysis: as expected self-aggressive behavior was associated with a higher depression score, more hospitalization and a poor global functioning score. Surprisingly, the patients who showed physical aggression against others had a better prognosis and lower depression scores. The study did not conclude on the link between aggressive behavior and depression in this population. The adolescent hostility appears more characteristic of depression compared to other dimensions of aggressivity (anger, verbal aggression, physical aggression) in adolescents. Physical aggression against others appeared not only less typical in depression but was also associated with a better global functioning. Clinicians should pay particular attention to the kind of aggressive behavior in clinical evaluations of adolescents in an emergency context.

Aggressive renal angiomyolipoma with vena cava extension: A case report and literature review.

Renal angiomyolipoma (AML) is the most common type of benign mesenchymal tumor of the kidney. AMLs typically present as benign lesions without local invasion. However, the tumor may exhibit aggressive behavior. Intravascular extension into the inferior vena cava (IVC) and hemorrhagic aneurysm formation associated with AML has rarely been reported in the past. In the current study, the novel case of a 77-year-old female is described who presented with a tumor thrombus extending to the IVC. The patient subsequently underwent a radical nephrectomy and an IVC tumor thrombectomy. In addition, the available literature regarding this unusual complication of a common renal neoplasm has been reviewed. It is essential for radiologists and clinicians to be aware that AMLs may exhibit these types of aggressive behaviors.

Impulsivity, depression and aggression among adolescents

The main goal of the present study was to examine interrelationships among adolescent depressive symptomatology, types of aggressive behaviors (verbal, physical, psychic), impulsivity and other aspects of one’s personality (venturesomeness, empathy and self-efficacy). Data collection occurred in Debrecen (Hungary) during the first semester of the year 2012, using classes from three high schools (N=413), 237 (57.4%) boys and 176 (42.6%) girls. The self-administered questionnaire contained variables of mental health beyond sociodemographics. Girls reported more depressive symptoms and a higher level of empathy. In terms of aggression, a significant gender difference was detected only in the case of physical aggression for boys. Based on multiple regression analyses, impulsivity acted as a risk factor both for mean levels of depressive symptomatology and aggression subscales. Besides, lack of empathy was related to aggressive behavior. In both genders, self-efficacy was positively associated with verbal and physical aggression. Among girls, self-efficacy was a negative predictor of psychic aggression. We may conclude that there are strong interrelationships among depressive symptomatology, aggressive behaviors and impulsivity, and this association may be colored by risk-taking/venturesomeness, empathy, and self-efficacy. There is a need for learning some basic effective techniques for impulsivity management in adolescence.

Relationships of Aggression Subtypes and Peer Status Among Aggressive Boys in General Education and Emotional/Behavioral Disorder (EBD) Classrooms

This study examines the concurrent and longitudinal relationships between reactive and proactive aggression and children's peer status. Participants were 94 Dutch elementary school-aged boys in self-contained special education classrooms for students with emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD) and 47 boys with no disabilities in general education classrooms. Hierarchical and logistic regression analyses were conducted to test how aggression, context, and their interactions predicted participants' peer status, which encompassed social preference and social impact as indicated by classroom peers. Descriptive analyses show that both reactive and proactive aggression were more common in EBD classrooms. Classroom type moderated the concurrent and longitudinal relationships between subtypes of aggression and social preference. The results indicate that to understand the relationship between aggression and children's peer status, it is important to analyze the specific type of aggressive behavior and the context in which it occurs. These findings also suggest the importance of students and teachers' responses to aggression in reducing aggressive behavior.

Predicting aggression in children with ADHD.

ObjectiveThe present study uses structural equation modeling of latent traits to examine the extent to which family factors, cognitive factors and perceptions of rejection in mother-child relations differentially correlate with aggression at home and at school.MethodsData were collected from 476 school-age (7–15 years old) children with a diagnosis of ADHD who had previously shown different types of aggressive behavior, as well as from their parents and teachers. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the differential relationships between maternal rejection, family, cognitive factors and aggression in home and school settings.ResultsFamily factors influenced aggression reported at home (.68) and at school (.44); maternal rejection seems to be related to aggression at home (.21). Cognitive factors influenced aggression reported at school (.-05) and at home (-.12).ConclusionsBoth genetic and environmental factors contribute to the development of aggressive behavior in ADHD. Identifying key risk factors will advance the development of appropriate clinical interventions and prevention strategies and will provide information to guide the targeting of resources to those children at highest risk.

Negative Maternal and Paternal Parenting Styles as Predictors of Children’s Behavioral Problems: Moderating Effects of the Child’s Sex

Mothers and fathers often adopt different approaches to raising their children, and the influence of different parenting styles on the development of behavioral problems may be different for boys and girls. Using data from 89 subjects, 42 boys and 47 girls, with a mean age of 62.8 months (SD = 3.3), the current study tested the influence of early negative maternal and paternal parenting styles on the development of boys’ and girls’ aggressive and behavioral problems. Parents, when children aged 5–6, completed the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire, and when children aged 8–9, the child behavior checklist. Children were evaluated for aggressive behavior with peers using the Direct and Indirect Aggression Scale at age 8–9. Our results show that an authoritarian maternal style is positively associated with both children’s externalizing and internalizing problems while the combination of an authoritarian maternal style and a permissive paternal style was negatively associated with internalizing problems, but only in boys, and this type of family was positively associated with both types of aggressive behavior in girls and boys. Besides, the combination of a permissive maternal style and a permissive paternal style was positively related to girls’ (but not boys’) physical aggression.

The role of cholecystokinin in the induction of aggressive behavior: A focus on the available experimental data (review)

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a neuropeptide that is (among others) reportedly involved in the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders. The excitatory role of CCK in negative affective emotions as well as in aversive reactions, antisocial behaviors and memories, has been indicated by numerous electrophysiological, neurochemical and behavioral methodologies on both animal models for anxiety and human studies. The current review article summarizes the existing experimental evidence with regards to the role of CCK in the induction of aggressive behavior, and: (a) synopsizes the anatomical circuits through which it could potentially mediate all types of aggressive behavior, as well as (b) highlights the potential use of these experimental evidence in the current research quest for the clinical treatment of mood and anxiety disorders.

The Problem With Overly Broad Definitions of Bullying: Implications for the Schoolhouse, the Statehouse, and the Ivory Tower

Within the past few decades, scholars, lawmakers, and educators have increased attention to a specific type of aggressive behavior known as bullying. While bullying is like peer aggression and harassment, in that they all pertain to negative aggressive actions, there are important distinctions among these three forms of behavior. The key features of bullying behavior that distinguish it from peer aggression and harassment are repetition and power imbalance. Much scholarly attention has been devoted to carefully delineating these distinctions. However, most existing measurement strategies generally ignore or imprecisely specify these two hallmark features. Moreover, when students’ perceptions of bullying are evaluated, repetition and power imbalance are largely disregarded. Perhaps most concerning, many states’ antibullying statutes obscure differences between bullying, peer aggression, and harassment, resulting in a legal equivalence of these very different types of aggression. Legal, policy, and practice implications of limited differentiation of these three behavioral categories are discussed.

Evaluation of drinking patterns and their impact on alcohol-related aggression: a national survey of adolescent behaviours

BackgroundAlthough there have been a wide range of epidemiological studies examining the impact of patterns of alcohol consumption among adolescents, there remains considerable variability in both defining these patterns and the ability to comprehensively evaluate their relationship to behavioural patterns. This study explores a new procedure for defining and evaluating drinking patterns and integrating well-established indicators. The composite measure is then used to estimate the impact of these patterns on alcohol-related aggressive behaviour among Italian adolescents.MethodsData were collected as part of the 2011 European School Survey Project on Alcohol and other Drugs (ESPAD). A national sample of 14,199 students aged 15–19 years was collected using an anonymous, self-administered questionnaire completed in a classroom setting. Drinking patterns were established using principal component analysis. Alcohol-related aggression was analysed as to its relationship to patterns of drinking, behaviour of friends towards alcohol use, substance use/abuse, school performance, family relationships and leisure activities.ResultsSeveral specific drinking patterns were identified: “Drinking to Excess” (DE), “Drinking with Intoxication” (DI) and “Drinking but Not to Excess” (DNE). A higher percentage of males were involved in alcohol-related aggression compared with females. In males, the DE and DI patterns significantly increased the likelihood of alcohol-related aggression, whereas the DNE pattern was negatively associated. Similar results were found in females, although the DI pattern was not significantly associated with alcohol-related aggression. Overall, cigarette smoking, illegal drug use, truancy, limited parental monitoring, frequent evenings spent outside of the home and peer influence associated strongly with alcohol-related aggression.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that drinking patterns, as uniquely monitored with an integrated metric, can: 1) explain drinking habits better than commonly used indicators of alcohol use and 2) provide a better understanding of behavioural risks such as alcohol-related aggression. Environmental background also appears to strongly associate with this type of aggressive behaviour.

Moral disengagement among children and youth: A meta‐analytic review of links to aggressive behavior

A growing body of research has demonstrated consistent links between Bandura's theory of moral disengagement and aggressive behavior in adults. The present meta-analysis was conducted to summarize the existing literature on the relation between moral disengagement and different types of aggressive behavior among school-age children and adolescents. Twenty-seven independent samples with a total of 17,776 participants (aged 8-18 years) were included in the meta-analysis. Results indicated a positive overall effect (r = .28, 95% CI [.23, .32]), supporting the hypothesis that moral disengagement is a significant correlate of aggressive behavior among children and youth. Analyses of a priori moderators revealed that effect sizes were larger for adolescents as compared to children, for studies that used a revised version of the original Bandura scale, and for studies with shared method variance. Effect sizes did not vary as a function of type of aggressive behavior, gender, or publication status. Results are discussed within the extant literature on moral disengagement and future directions are proposed.

Intellectual disability and co‐occurring mental health and physical disorders in aggressive behaviour

Mental and physical health problems are more prevalent among individuals with an intellectual disability (ID) than in the general population. Studies suggest that there may be significant associations between these co-occurring disorders and aggressive behaviour, but few studies have taken into account multiple mental and physical problems, as well as their level of severity. The main goal of this study was to identify the associations between different types of aggressive behaviour and various types of physical and mental health problems. These associations were explored through a cross-sectional study of 296 adult men and women with mild or moderate ID living in the community and receiving ID services. Information was gathered through interviews with ID participants, case managers and file review. The results show that individuals with ID who have more mental and physical health problems have higher odds of displaying aggressive behaviour than those with fewer and less severe physical health problems. These results can help guide future prevention and intervention strategies for persons with ID who display aggressive behaviour or who are at risk of become aggressive.

The effects of competitor density on aggressive behaviour and resource defence in a Poeciliid fish

Summary To test the hypothesis that competitor density and time spent at a food resource influences aggressive behaviour in male swordtail, Xiphophorus sp., fish were kept at two densities (low: 18 fish m−3; high: 54 fish m−3) and aggressive behaviour was recorded with the time at the food resource used as a covariate. Competitor density is likely to affect the cost:benefit ratio of food defence. When density is low, there should be sufficient food for all individuals and intra-specific interactions are expected to be rare, while at high densities, increased intra-specific encounter rates mean that individuals may spend more time defending a resource than utilising it. Food resource defence should occur at intermediate densities. The frequency of aggression, i.e. bites, chases, and display behaviour was significantly positively influenced by time spent at the food resource (Bites: F1,31 = 8.186, P = 0.007; Chases: F1,31 = 6.439, P = 0.016; Displays: F1,31 = 4.435, P = 0.043) suggesting that food resource defence occurred. Competitor density had no effect on food resource defence and minimal effect on the frequency of aggression with only one type of aggressive behaviour, male–male displays, showing a difference between densities (F1,31 = 6.975, P = 0.013). This finding is suggested to be a result of the formation of dominance hierarchies in this species. Aggression from the dominant individual may be directed at only subordinates of the next dominance rank and subordinate behaviour may be restricted by status rather than immediate threat. In such a situation, aggression may be independent of competitor density.