18th Dynasty Research Articles

Dedication Formulas Inscribed on the False Doors of Individuals during the Eighteenth Dynasty

Dedication Formulas Inscribed on the False Doors of Individuals during the Eighteenth Dynasty

Fingerprints as indicators of craftworkers age and sex in a sample of clay ushabtis from TT 209, Luxor, Egypt.

This article analyses fingerprints identified on a set of backed clay Egyptian funerary figurines, known as ushabtis. The strata in which they were found dates from the late Persian to the early Ptolemaic dynasties (ca. fifth to third centuries BCE), but the objects might have been made some two centuries earlier, during the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (ca. 747656 BCE), and then reused for a later burial. The authors propose that fingerprints preserved on ancient objects can be used to understand the roles that age and sex played in the organization of production systems in ancient societies. The Mean Ridge Breadth (MRB) and Mean Ridge Density (MRD) of each discrete fingerprint was measured. The craftworkers ages and heights were calculated from the MRB using specific regression equations, and their probable sex was determined by correlating the MRD with that of the reference population (contemporary Sudan). An age/sex identification matrix was then created to combine the results of MRB and MRD determinations for each piece. The results show, with high probability, that around 90% of the ushabtis were made by female adolescents between the ages of 11 and 16, and the remainder by children and some adult women. A minimum of between four and eight craftworkers manufactured the ushabtis, and due to their age and the relatively low level of skill required, it is proposed that they are likely to have been in the learning phase of their trade.

Towards a ‘Social Art History’: Ancient Egyptian Metalworkers in Context(s) and the Creation of Value

In this paper, I argue for a ‘social art history’ that embraces all protagonists of ancient Egyptian artistic production and integrates them into the global process of creating prestige through art. The raison d’être of artists is to translate their skills into material and immaterial media using culturally embedded codes and ideological trends of their time. In the process, artists—or at least top artists who accessed restricted knowledge—created value and prestige as a means of competition between rival elites (and the sub-elite emulating them). This paper aims to address the question of defining social value embedded in material artifacts, especially when owned by intermediary social categories such as the New Kingdom metalworkers. It will touch upon what was seen as valuable and prestigious from the Egyptians’ perspective by looking at the iconography of New Kingdom metalworkers. The paper will examine 18th–20th dynasty goldsmiths’ self-depictions as they were in charge of creating artifacts in gold, a metal connected with solar symbolism and intertwined with the divine, kingship, and membership in the high elite. Ultimately, the paper aims to tackle the question of self-presentation for people who were not part of the elite per se, i.e., the sub-elite illustrated here by the metalworkers. In so doing, it uses, in a preliminary attempt, some concepts inherited from the Chicago School of Sociology.

Nubian Style Pottery from the New Kingdom Town of Sai Island

Abstract The pottery corpus from the city on Sai Island, one of the characteristic colonial towns in New Kingdom Nubia, comprises a majority of Egyptian style vessels and Nubian style ceramics as well as ‘hybrid’ pieces. This paper presents the Eighteenth Dynasty Nubian pottery from Sai city, focussing primarily on quantities, shapes, wares and parallels from various sites in context, and discusses its social and cultural implications. A key concern is how much Sai represents an elite urban phenomenon that differs from rural contexts in the hinterland of the city. The Nubian style pottery as an integral part of the corpus of Sai attests to social practices of a local group with a specific cultural identity. The community practices reflected in the pottery show that the legacy of the Kerma empire was never completely abandoned but adapted in relation to the new political, social and religious circumstances in a colonial context.

Josiah at Megiddo: New Evidence from the Field

ABSTRACT The encounter between Josiah and Necho at Megiddo in 609 BCE (2 Kings 23,29) was a fateful event in biblical period history and theology. Yet, the archaeology of the site failed to supply information about this affair. Here we describe the finds of several post 732 BCE layers recently unearthed at the site, with special attention to Level X-3 of the late 7th century. The finds in this layer include an exceptional number of Egyptian-made pottery vessels as well as a significant number of East Greek pottery, usually interpreted as representing Greek mercenaries in the service of the 26th Dynasty. These finds shed light on the population of Egyptian-governed Megiddo and hence on the background of the 609 BCE event.

Towards the Origins of the Pyramid Texts

Abstract The Pyramid Texts represent the oldest surviving corpus of religious compositions from ancient Egypt. Their first attestations come from the very end of the Fifth Dynasty, from the inner rooms of the pyramid of King Unas (late 24th century BC). Some scholars have suggested that their roots must have been older, and their origins have been widely discussed among Egyptologists. What could shed more light on this topic are the wooden fragments, dated to the Sixth Dynasty, with parts of several Pyramid Texts spells found in the excavations of the French Archaeological Mission at Saqqara. These artefacts demonstrate that the religious texts could have been written down on portable items of burial equipment, uncovering thus new dynamics in the extent of their usage. In this regard, wooden fragments from the pyramid complex Lepsius no. 24 (AC 22 [J]) and the pyramid complex of Queen Khentkaus II (AC 14 [A]) at Central Abusir, both dated to the Fifth Dynasty, are of considerable significance. These may represent the earliest clear evidence of the so-called Pyramid Texts in ancient Egypt.

Two Identical Door lintels from the Eighteenth Dynasty at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo

Two Identical Door lintels from the Eighteenth Dynasty at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo

Comparison between the offering tables of the tomb TT 388 with some of the Saite period tombs in Asasif

Comparison between the offering tables of the tomb TT 388 with some of the Saite period tombs in Asasif

SMALL FINDS IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN HOUSEHOLD. MULTIFUNCTIONALITY AND ACTIVITIES IN BUILDING B AT TELL EL-GHABA (NORTH SINAI)

This work is presented as a continuation of previous writings in which the concept of 'small finds' has been problematized and a review of the materials catalogued as small finds for Tell El-Ghaba archaeological site has been systematised and conducted. This urban settlement was occupied between the beginning of the Third Intermediate Period and the Early Saite Period. The focus of this paper is to study the small finds recovered in Building B considering their contextual relationships, characteristics, and possible meanings in a structure defined as domestic. The detailed contextual study of small finds in a domestic context such as Building B aims to contribute to the scarce studies of this matter in the eastern Delta.

Bordering Power: Reinterpreting Three First Cataract Inscriptions of King Merenra

This paper reconsiders three royal inscriptions of King Merenra (Sixth Dynasty) in the region of the First Nile Cataract. They have long been known to scholars but have not received extensive treatment beyond translations. The inscriptions appear to be among the first explicit royal statements addressing the limits of Egyptian territory and the beginnings of foreign lands. The paper situates the inscriptions within more comprehensive scholarship related to border studies, the geographic setting of the First Cataract region, and the historical context of the late Old Kingdom. We argue these inscriptions provide key information about political border-making during this period.

The Forces of the Hyksos and Their Representations: Glimpse of Reality or interpretatio Thebarum?

Not much is known about the forces of the Hyksos, 15th Dynasty rulers of the Second Intermediate Period in Egypt. This was a time when Egypt and Nubia were divided between several competing royal houses and corresponding dynasties, e.g., the 14th and 15th Dynasty in Lower Egypt, 16th and 17th Dynasty in Upper Egypt, as well as the Kushite kingdom in Nubia. Loyalty to any of these polities was not based on ethnic identity. Forces of different ethnicities could pledge loyalty to any of the competitors. Bearing in mind the multi-ethnic population on the territory under the Hyksos rule, this article discusses the reality behind ideologically colored Theban representations of the Hyksos forces as consisting solely of foreigners. Starting from the premise that royal artistic production is deeply entangled with power in ancient Egypt, this article analyzes the ways private and royal inscriptions as well as literary and visual representations were employed to construct the cultural memory of the Second Intermediate Period which privileged the experience of Theban victors and degraded the experience of their rivals.

From the Concept to Goddesses: Roles and Iconography of the Goddesses Dual Maat (mꜢʿty) in the 18th Dynasty

The concept of mꜢʿty, understood as cosmic order, justice, and truth, is personified as the goddess Maat. While typically depicted as a singular entity, she is occasionally represented as two goddesses known as Dual Maat (mꜢʿty). The attestation of wsḫt nt mꜢʿty (the broad hall of Dual Maat) in Chapter 125 of the Book of the Dead suggests their prominence from the New Kingdom onwards. Though scholars have debated the duplication of Maat in the afterlife, the reason remains unclear. Recent studies indicate mAaty appeared in the Old Kingdom, possibly reinterpreted as Dual at a later stage. This paper revisits 18th Dynasty sources, particularly focusing on Book of the Dead papyri not previously examined. Iconographic analysis reveals diversity in depictions of Dual Maat, suggesting ongoing stabilization of their roles and images in ancient Egyptian funerary beliefs. يُج َسَّد مفهوم ماعت، الذي يُفهم على أنه رم ٌزٌ للنظام الكوني والعدالة والحق، في المعبودةً ماعت. تُُصور هذه المعبودةً عاد ًةً بهيئة فردية، ومع ذلك فهي تُظهر في بعض الأحيان بهيئة معبودتُين تُُعرفان باسم ماعت المزٌدوجة (ماعتي). ويشير ذكر عبارةً «وسخت نت ماعتي» (القاعة الواسعة لماعت المزٌدوجة) في الفصل 125 من كتاب الموتى إلى ظهورها منذ عصر الدولة الحديثة فصاع ًدا. وعلى الرغم من أن الباحثين ناقشوا ازدواجية ماعت في الحياةً الأخرى، فلا يزٌال سبب ذلك غير واضح. تُشير الدراسات الحديثة إلى أن ماعتي ظهرت في عصر الدولة القديمة، وربما أعيد تُفسَّير ظهورها بالهيئة المزٌدوجة في مرحلة لاحقة. يُعيد هذا المقال النظر في مصادر الأسرةً 18، لا سيما تُلك التي تُركزٌ على برديات كتاب الموتى والتي لم تُتم دراستها من قبل. يكشف تُحليل هيئات المعبودات عن تُنوع تُصوير ماعت المزٌدوجة، مما يشير إلى استقرار أدوارهما وصورهما في المعتقدات الجنائزٌية المصرية القديمة.

Portrait Shabti for a Libyan General of the Saite Dynasty

There are no inscriptions on the remains of Ankhwahibresaneith’s tomb complex at Saqqara, but his title and three generations of his family are named on the distinctive shabtis that were left in it by looters. This paper describes one of his shabtis, and identifies Ankhwahibresaneith as one of the elite Libyan warriors who served in the Egyptian armies of the 26th Dynasty, in this instance probably in that of Psamtik I. لا توجد نقوش على بقايا مجمع مقبرة عنخ-واح-إيب-رع-سا-نيت في سقارة، ومع ذلك فإن لقبه وأسماء ثلاثة أجيال من عائلته مذكورة على تماثيل الأوشابتي المميزة التي تركها لصوص الآثار فيها. يصف هذا المقال واح ًدا من تماثيل الأوشابتي هذه ويتعرف على عنخ-واح-إيب-رع- سا-نيت بصفته أحد نخبة المحاربين الليبيين الذين خدموا في الجيوش المصرية في عصر الأسرة 62، وربما في جيش الملك بسماتيك الأول على وجه التحديد

Steering Gear, Sails, and Hulls for Dating Late Fifth and Sixth Dynasty Egyptian Tombs, and the Invention of the Tiller

Steering Gear, Sails, and Hulls for Dating Late Fifth and Sixth Dynasty Egyptian Tombs, and the Invention of the Tiller

Two Rare Constructions of the Third Future in Late Egyptian: The So-called Analogue Third Future

The paper highlights two rare constructions of the Third Future in Late Egyptian. These rare constructions are iw.f + prepositional phrase / iri N + prepositional phrase and iw.f+ Statve / iri N+ Stative. The Egyptian scribe interchanged the so-called third future with one of these rare constructions in some special cases such as the oath, wills, and as apodosis of a conditional sentence. The rare construction iw.f + prepositional phrase / iri N + prepositional phrase is found more frequently in the texts than the other construction with stative. Although several studies described the two rare constructions and discussed their meaning and their origin in LE, the implications are still unclear due to the low number of attestations; this paper provides more explicit evidence for both rare constructions in LE. As for the texts from the 19th to 22nd dynasties, the corpus shows that the two rare constructions occurred more often in the non-literary texts than in the literary texts. The attestations of the 21st and 22nd dynasties were much rarer; only one example is found in the texts of the 21st Dynasty, while 5 examples appear in the 22nd Dynasty. Finally, the examples of the 20th Dynasty were more numerous than those of the other dynasties of the corpus, because the two rare constructions are attested more often in the literary and non-literary texts. Keywords: The Third Future, The analogue Third Future, the rare constructions of the Future.

The Sociology of Tomb and Temple Robbers of the Late 20th Dynasty: Part II, The Bands of Thieves and the Ramesside Society

This article is the second part of a study devoted to the sociology of tomb robberies at the end of the 20th Dynasty and focuses on the organization of the thieves into bands. These structures were relatively stable. Leadership was inconstant and associated with unequal loot sharing and conflict. Households, including enslaved people, played an important role in band organization particularly among tomb robbers, while hierarchy and patronage with corruption and blackmailing characterized temple thefts. Another social pattern relying on equality, solidarity, and merit existed among tomb robbers of an equal social status and probably corresponds to what ancient Egyptians called wnḏw. How these patterns of sociability are representative of the society of the time is discussed. [Formula: see text]

La navigation funéraire de Khnoumhotep à Béni-Hassan

The aim of lexicography is not simply to restore the lexicon of a language. Words express the world and its categories. The only way to find their exact meaning, i.e. to precisely delimit their semantic field, is to carry out a genuine ethnographic survey. The aim of this article is to show that, with a good knowledge of the principles of Egyptian navigation and the words used by boatmen, it is possible to find several ideas that are merely suggested behind a figuration accompanied by a banal inscription. We will consider here the example of a navigation scene and an inscription from the tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni-Hassan (Twelfth Dynasty). The researcher might think that these ideas were hidden, as they were intended for initiates, but this is not the case. Any Egyptian observer looking at the scene and reading the inscription could find them without difficulty.

The Autobiography of Weni I: An Additional Source on Egypt’s Nautical Activities during the Old Kingdom

Weni’s autobiography has been the subject of numerous publications since 1864. This autobiography recounts Weni’s various actions and his service to three kings of the Sixth Dynasty (ca. 2345–2181 BCE). Among these works are various nautical activities, whether in the Nile or in the Mediterranean Sea during the reigns of Pepi I and Merenre. Although he listed some details, Egyptologists did not analyze them at an adequate level. Perhaps because they are not specialized in the field of nautical archaeology. Therefore, this paper focuses on highlighting Weni’s nautical activities and its importance as a source of knowledge at the end of the Old Kingdom. The research describes the five missions with navigational parts. It studies and analyzes in detail its various elements such as the types of ships, their names, sizes, types of wood used in building ships and their construction methods from the point of view of nautical archaeology. The importance of re-studying Weni’s autobiography lies in trying to deal with this activity in an integrated manner between Egyptology and nautical archaeology. The research concluded the existence of major economic activities and great projects in the Sixth Dynasty and the end of the Old Kingdom, despite the old beliefs about the weakness of the State in that period. It also clarifies and interprets some of the ambiguities of the text by subjecting it to the science of nautical archaeology.

Making plundered spaces sacred again: fragmentation, reorganisation and respect in reused Theban tombs

Textual sources from the Egyptian New Kingdom highlight a societal desire to preserve tombs for life after death, yet extensive architectural renovations and tomb robbing often followed the interment of elite individuals. Rather than posing a threat to conceptions of the afterlife, the author argues that these post-mortem activities were conducted with respect and the intention of forming connections. Using the identification of an unusual ritual structure from the Third Intermediate Period inside the reused Nineteenth Dynasty tomb of Paenmuaset (TT362) at Thebes (Luxor) as a basis, the author explores respect in ever-changing burial spaces as a key feature of tomb reuse.

An Unedited Hieratic Docket Regarding the Travel Expenses of Tutankhamun’s Funeral Procession (Carter 270b)

Summary Based on an unedited hieratic docket from the tomb of Tutankhamun, this article determines financial aspects of royal funeral processions in ancient Egypt. With reference to written sources from the Middle Kingdom, it is concluded that mechanics to safeguard the ritual’s safety included en route cash payments during the 18th Dynasty. As a result, this study advocates caution when it comes to the assessment of looting activities soon after Tutankhamun’s interment in KV 62.