ABSTRACT In the early twentieth century, scholars studied the Nuer social organisation and described it as a system of interconnected patrilineal lineages, clans, tribal segments, and tribes. They viewed the Nuer society as lacking centralised political institutions and complex social structures. However, this observation was based on the Nuer of the nineteenth century, who had weak ties to their common origin and history, allowing for intermixing with neighbouring peoples, mainly Dinka and Anuak. Over the twentieth century, factors such as globalisation, colonialism, and civil wars caused the Nuer society to undergo significant changes. They transitioned from a genealogically segmented pastoralist society to an ethnic group. However, this ethnic identity is currently facing challenges and fragmentation due to displacement and increased mobility. This paper examines how the Nuer have defined boundaries between themselves and others throughout history, depending on the cultural and structural contexts that shape their identity, through an in-depth analysis of literature, oral history, historical research, and interviews.

As the use of functional tonality diminished in the twentieth century, composers searched for new means by which to create momentum and articulate form. This article examines some of these explorations as found in the works of Roger Smalley (1943–2015). In Smalley’s two percussion-only works, Ceremony I (1987), for percussion quartet and Music for An Imaginary Ballet (1994), for percussion soloist, momentum is often driven by processes of expansion and contraction. The use of unpitched percussion in these works elevates the importance of Smalley’s use of these processes when determining durations, tempos, density, dynamics and spatial separation. In each of these fields, expansion and contraction play important generative roles and drive the momentum. This article will also discuss their less obvious, but equally important, application in the pitch domain. To articulate large-scale form, Smalley experimented with single (or highly restricted) timbral resources within individual movements. Although each movement was thereby restricted in its timbral variety, the juxtaposition of movements with highly contrasting timbres proved to be a highly successful articulator of form.

Genetically engineered bacteriophages - their roles in combating intracellular bacterial infections and unraveling phage-eukaryote interactions.

This article links the regional history of palm oil and kernel extraction in French West Africa to the global history of fat resources. It argues that what happened to fat resources produced and consumed elsewhere is crucial to understanding how the extraction of West African palm products developed over time. The article illustrates how the French became interested in West African palm oil in the nineteenth century in their search for fats for soap production, and how the colonial conquest of the region was linked to the West African groundnut crisis. In the twentieth century, the way in which palm products were then extracted owed more and more to the experience of Sumatra and Malaya: standardised plantations became the model to be replicated in West Africa, with all its environmental consequences, and the Asian oil palm trees themselves were imported to the French colonies. This article was published open access under a CC BY 4.0 licence: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Between the Renaissance and the twentieth century, Western dramatists wrote a body of plays about life in the Orient, to be performed for European audiences. These Oriental plays were particularly popular in England. Playwrights drew their information mainly from existing sources. These writers habitually portrayed Muslim characters in ways that not only seriously failed to reflect their actual beliefs, but outright contradicted the fundamental tenets of the Islamic faith. This paper explores the portrayal of Mohammed as a deity and Muslims as polytheists. It attempts to examine whether these misrepresentations of Muslims can be attributed to either grievous misunderstandings or malicious intentions. Although Islamic doctrine clearly emphasizes the nature of Mohammed as a normal human being, we find Muslim characters in the Western dramas elevate him to divine status, attributing to him the capabilities of a god or deity. We likewise find his followers acknowledging the existence of other gods, including those of the Greeks and the Romans, swearing by them and invoking them, despite the fact that those who adhere to the teachings of Mohammed are strict believers in the absolute oneness of God. Dramatists presented to the English audience Muslim characters who display an unnatural mix of Islamic, Christian, and pagan traditions. The result is a confused portrayal that distorts the Islamic identity of those characters. It seems evident that this misrepresentation of the Muslim character as being foreign, extremist, and uncivilized, whether intentionally or through misunderstanding, contributed to the attitudes held by Europeans toward Islam.

We describe the development of neurochemistry in Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile in the XX century through Latin American scientists who pioneered the discipline in their countries. In addition, we analyze the research groups that succeeded the pioneers and the fields explored in greater depth in different countries. We examine the history of glial cell research and the efforts made despite financial constraints. We also highlight the role of the International Society of Neurochemistry (ISN) in the history of neurochemistry in Latin America. A special section is dedicated to neurochemistry in Venezuela, given its significant role in the past.

AI & collective memory.

ABSTRACT The purpose of this article is to examine the Russian/Soviet military scientist Andrei Snesarev’s articulation of the voyenno-politicheskaya obstanovka (VPO, or military-political situation) as the conceptual hinge between geography, politics, and military science in Russian strategic thought. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the VPO was treated as a legitimate subject of open academic and staff debate, discussed in lectures, journals, and official publications concerned with military geography. This relative transparency reflected a professional culture that viewed the mapping of political and geographic conditions as a prerequisite for rational state defense. In contrast, the modern Russian Federation classifies the VPO as sovershenno sekretno—top secret—acknowledging its continuing role as the integrative framework through which political, economic, and territorial factors are synthesized into strategic threat assessment. Historically, Snesarev’s formulation of the VPO offered an early attempt to systematize that synthesis, transforming geography from a passive description of terrain into a dynamic tool for forecasting conflict. Today, as geopolitical instability once again blurs the line between political analysis and military planning, Snesarev’s approach retains both historical and theoretical importance. It underscores the enduring truth that effective strategy depends not only on the mastery of space, but on the disciplined understanding of the political forces that animate it.

ABSTRACT This essay uses masculinity as a theoretical lens through which to read and interpret the important social and historical changes that have shaped China over the last four decades of the twentieth century. Yu Hua’s novel Brothers is a classic example in which masculinities serve as allegories for the collapse of traditional Chinese values and the rise of a market-driven ethos from the late 1970s onward. While predatory masculinity, embodied in protagonist Baldy Li, fits in perfectly well with a newly emerging market economy, soft masculinity, manifested in protagonist Song Gang, is deeply nostalgic and harks back to a self-contained agrarian culture of Confucian China. Ultimately, masculinity becomes an intriguing and contested site not only of competing values but also of contrasting socio-economic systems. One can argue that neither the ideologically rigid Maoist system nor the unbridled market economy allows for the possibility of an ideal masculinity. Like morality, masculinity is compromised and eventually becomes a casualty in China’s relentless change and transformation. As such, the notion of masculinity serves as an interesting theoretical perspective from which to ponder China’s historical trajectory, its modernization process and the gains and losses associated with it.

Investigation into the articulations between formations of caste and cities in India has only recently gained momentum in research on urban India. Seeking to contribute to this research, this paper close reads Puneri, an anthology authored by noted Marathi litterateur S.J. Joshi, published in 1978. Written as reminiscences about the public culture of the city of Pune in the early to mid twentieth century, Puneri, I argue, represents a discursive attempt at caste-based appropriation of the city’s identity, whereby the remembered city is produced as a Brahman city, erasing the presence and contribution of marginalised caste groups to the city’s public life. I illustrate how this caste-marked city emerges via the distinct temporal and spatial boundaries that Joshi narrates in his essays, attempting to mask the deep contestations of the city spaces along caste lines in early twentieth century Pune.

In 2022, the US Supreme Court affirmed the constitutional right of most civilians to carry concealed firearms in public for self-defense, overturning restrictive concealed carry laws in several states. Concealed carry regulations have evolved substantially through four waves of reforms, beginning with prohibitions of the practice in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to today's permitless-carry regimes in more than half of US states. In recent decades, competing claims about whether permissive concealed carry regulations deter or exacerbate criminal violence have been studied with increasing rigor, with the weight of evidence now showing that such laws cause increases in homicide and violent crime rates. We review the limited available research examining the mechanisms by which permissive concealed carry laws increase violence and the evidence that specific law provisions may contribute to those effects. This review is intended to inform ongoing decisions and debates about concealed carry regulations and their impact on violence in America.

The autonomous status of Malang City, established at the beginning of the twentieth century, brought significant changes to urban space and community life. These spatial changes are evident in the emergence of leisure spaces designed to accommodate a European lifestyle. The development of various forms of entertainment, supported by related facilities, represented an effort to serve the needs of the elite classes who migrated to Malang in large numbers. As a result, entertainment venues and leisure spaces fostered new forms of European-style leisure activities.This paper examines the formation of leisure spaces as representations of social class in Malang City, the relationship between leisure spaces and European communities, and the transformation of urban society in connection with leisure practices. The study employs historical methods and relies on primary sources drawn from contemporary newspapers. Publications such as Indische Courant, Java Bode, De Locomotief, and Soerabaijasch Handelsblad functioned not only as historical records but also as media for promoting leisure spaces. Using leisure class theory, this study analyzes the socio-cultural practices that took place within leisure spaces and contributed to the shaping of urban areas during the Dutch East Indies period. Dutch colonial power, as reflected in leisure and entertainment spaces, underwent significant changes following the collapse of colonial rule and its replacement by Japanese occupation. Nevertheless, Dutch colonial influence continued to shape the character of Malang. The social and urban transformations that occurred in the city reflected the growth of consumerism and entertainment culture. Ultimately, the emergence of entertainment venues in Malang became a symbol of colonialism, marked by distinctive patterns of inclusivity and exclusivity.

Cold War women: female translators of Russian and Soviet literature in the twentieth century

This article examines Jadidism as a cultural, educational, and social reform movement of the Muslim intelligentsia in Turkestan in the early twentieth century. The study explores the historical prerequisites for the emergence of Jadidism, its ideological foundations, and its principal areas of activity, including educational reform, the development of the periodical press, and the formation of a new cultural environment. Particular attention is paid to the leading figures of the Jadid movement and their contribution to the modernization of Muslim society, as well as to the resistance they encountered from traditionalist religious circles and the colonial administration of the Russian Empire. The article highlights the role of Jadidism in shaping national consciousness among the peoples of Turkestan and assesses its significance for subsequent socio-political and cultural transformations in the region. It is argued that Jadidism constituted a crucial stage in the cultural modernization of Central Asia and laid the foundations for the emergence of a modern national intelligentsia in the twentieth century.

This paper aims to show that Sheridan Le Fanu’s short story “Green Tea” is a portrayal of addiction and its issues. The paper begins by discussing the Victorian attitude to mental health in general and addiction in particular, finding that it was lacklustre in both cases. The paper then analyzes Le Fanu’s “Green Tea”, arguing that the author portrayed addiction and its effects in a sensitive manner, contrary to dominant Victorian ideas. To do so, the paper argues that Jennings’ afflictions are psychological in nature, that the supernatural monkey was a result of hallucinations borne out of substance-abuse related disorders such as HPPD. It also unpacks the symbolism of green tea and points out at Le Fanu’s understanding of the nature of addictiveness of any substance. Finally, the paper also focusses on certain textual lines that are concrete proof of the author’s deliberate portrayal of addiction and related issues. The paper concludes by finding Le Fanu’s discourse of addiction to be sensitive and humane – unlike Victorian moralistic condemnations of it – and many of his ideas to be foreshadowing developments in psychology and psychoanalysis of the twentieth century.

Neoliberalism and fascism in the short twentieth century: collective intellectuals, anti-communism and the rise of neoconservatism

Abstract We investigate how Reconstruction affected Black socio‐economic advancement after the American Civil War. We use the location of federal troops and Freedmen's bureau offices to indicate more intensive federal enforcement of civil rights. We find that Black people made greater socio‐economic advances where Reconstruction was more rigorously enforced, and that these effects persisted at least until the early twentieth century, although these advances were weaker in cotton‐plantation zones. We suggest a mechanism leading from greater Black political power to higher local property taxes through to higher levels of Black schooling and greater Black socio‐economic achievement.

Museums continue to face challenges in maintaining collections as digital offerings expand. Embracing object-based analysis prompts museums to reflect on gaps in object descriptions. This article focuses on two commemorative handkerchiefs from the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, England held in the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) online collections. Recommendations include describing the history of textiles manufacturing in England as well as the use of imagery on commemorative handkerchiefs symbolic of control, unity, and loyalty to the British Crown at this event. This research fills a gap in existing literature on memorabilia at the international exhibitions during the mid-nineteenth to early twentieth century. It also highlights how prioritizing research in online collections management and improving transparency regarding institutional challenges can bring renewed focus to online record-keeping and educational opportunities.

This article examines the creative legacy of “Makovets”, an artistic and literary group active in the early twentieth century. The author argues that the group was grounded in the idea of the unity of Russian culture, with its spiritual foundations shaped by reinterpretations of Christian tradition. The “Makovets” society worked within what might be called an archaeo-avant-garde approach, seeking to bring past and future, tradition and innovation, into organic conversation. Rejecting the principle of “Art for Art’s Sake”, its members advanced the slogan “Art is Life”. The leading figure of the group, Vasily Chekrygin, authored its main manifesto. He developed concepts such as the integrity of the artistic image, the religious nature of the creator, conciliar (sobornyi) art, “naïve realism”, and the interconnection of spirit and form, painting and philosophy. Chekrygin pushed art beyond a purely aesthetic category, insisting that its true purpose lies in the transfiguration of the world. At the center of his thought stood the idea of the synthesis of the arts. The article shows that, within Russian culture, this idea is often interpreted through the problem of anthropodicy, and compares Chekrygin’s position regarding the synthesis of the arts with that of Pavel Florensky, one of the intellectual supporters of “Makovets”. It also considers the influence of Nikolai Fyodorov’s works on Chekrygin’s philosophy of creativity. The article also pays particular attention to the legacy of Sergei Romanovich, Lev Zhegin, and Raisa Florenskaya. The author concludes that, a century later, the central idea of “Makovets” — the unity of culture grounded in enduring values — has regained new relevance.

ABSTRACT Against the background of recent debates on methodology in educational historiography, this article raises questions concerning the disciplinary self-understanding of history of education often taken for granted within reflections on methods and sources. More particularly, our aim is to problematise the understanding of history of education as an empirical social science which rose to prominence in the wake of the social turn in historiography during the second half of the twentieth century and which seems to have remained largely unquestioned until today, despite debates on various subsequent turns (e.g. cultural, material, sensory). Topical debates on the place of history of knowledge within history of education are indicative of a desire to take into account more epistemological problems and perspectives in educational historiography as well. However, we argue that the history of knowledge risks perpetuating the understanding of historiography as an empirical social science, thereby sidelining philosophical questions that could challenge this assumed identity, such as debates about the meaning of time and knowledge, historical context, conceptual change, and the practice of reading and writing history. Drawing attention to the already established disciplines of history of ideas and intellectual history as ways of studying the past, we seek to open up a space for raising philosophical questions as a vital part of historical research.