Equine trypanosomiasis is a neglected protozoal disease. To perform a systematic search of literature to explore: (1) In equines what is the global geographical distribution and prevalence of trypanosomiasis? In low and middle-income countries (LMICs) is trypanosomiasis more prevalent than in higher-income countries (HICs)? (2) Is trypanosomiasis infection a significant contributor to global morbidity and mortality? Systematic review and meta-analyses. Studies were identified that described naturally occurring equine trypanosomiasis worldwide following 'Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses' using eight international databases (1980-2022). Equine population data for each country were extracted. Meta-analyses were used to estimate point prevalence and disease characteristics. Country exposure risk to equines (negligible/low/medium/high) and clinical data (Trypanosoma sp.; outbreak (O) vs. endemic (E) disease) were categorised. Study quality was assessed (Question 1 prevalence: n = 147 manuscripts, median grade 'medium' (4/8 (range 2-6)); Question 2 morbidity and mortality: n = 46 'moderate' (n = 1), 'low' (n = 20) or 'very low' (n = 25)). Heterogeneity was high. LMICs were more likely to report disease (41/125; 33% vs. 7/80, 9%; (p < 0.001; OR 5.1 (2.1-14.2))). Fifty-six percent of the world's equines reside in a 'medium'/'high' risk country (61,507,601). Disease characteristics were summated. For Trypanosoma evansi: (O) Infection rate (IR) (42%; 95% CI 14-76), morbidity (47%; (13-85)), mortality (23%; 7-54) and death to case ratio (DCR) (45%; 20-73). Trypanosoma equiperdum: (O) IR 12% (7-18), morbidity 25% (9-49). Tsetse transmitted trypanosomiasis (O): IR 46% (29-63), morbidity 46% (29%-63%), mortality 6% (1-19), DCR 12% (2-38). (E) IR 50% (20-60), morbidity (no data), mortality 11% (7-14), DCR 9% (5-16). Trypanosoma vivax (O) IR 43% (10-83), morbidity 43% (10-83), mortality 15% (0-100), DCR 32% (0-100). Publication bias, heterogeneity, descriptive data, missing data. Equine trypanosomiasis predominates in LMICs. Conservatively, globally more than eight million equines are estimated to be affected, with substantial morbidity and mortality.

Mechanistic and Synergistic Evaluation of Amodiaquine-Isometamidium Combination Against Trypanosoma evansi: Integrated In Silico-In-Vitro Insights.

Surra, caused by Trypanosoma evansi , is a major constraint to camel health and productivity in arid and semi-arid regions. Despite Kazakhstan’s large camel population, peer-reviewed data on surra epidemiology remain scarce. A cross-sectional seroepidemiological survey was conducted in two camel-breeding regions of Kazakhstan (Mangystau and Kyzylorda) during 2024 and 2025. Serum samples (n = 2,745 in 2024; n = 2,900 in 2025) were tested for anti- T. evansi antibodies using the complement fixation test (CFT) and the formol gel test (FGT). Seroprevalence was expressed with 95% confidence intervals (CI), and regional/temporal differences were assessed using Pearson’s chi-square test. In Mangystau, CFT prevalence decreased from 5.0% (95% CI: 2.15–11.18) in 2024 to 0.78% (95% CI: 0.21–2.82) in 2025 ( p = 0.0319), while FGT positivity declined from 65.0% to 5.88% ( p &lt; 0.001). Conversely, in Kyzylorda, CFT prevalence increased significantly from 4.0% (95% CI: 3.32–4.82) to 8.88% (95% CI: 7.87–10.01; p &lt; 0.001), whereas FGT values rose slightly from 7.8% to 8.96% without statistical significance ( p = 0.1504). This study provides one of the first systematic multi-year assessments of T. evansi circulation in camels in Kazakhstan, revealing contrasting regional dynamics, with a sharp decline in Mangystau and a significant increase in Kyzylorda. These findings underscore the heterogeneous nature of surra epidemiology and highlight the need for continued surveillance and combined diagnostic approaches to inform control strategies.

Assessing the efficacy of three trypanocidal drugs in controlling Trypanosoma evansi.

Molecular diversity, selection pressure, and structural modeling of Actin in Trypanosoma evansi isolates.

The dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) is a multifunctional animal indispensable for the livelihoods and food security of pastoralist communities residing in arid and semi-arid regions. Despite its socio-economic and cultural significance, the welfare of camels has garnered limited scientific scrutiny, particularly regarding the effects of parasitic diseases. These diseases pose a significant barrier to camel health, resulting in considerable production losses and severe welfare challenges. This review consolidates evidence on the impact of parasitic infections, which include hemoparasites (Trypanosoma evansi, Babesia, and Theileria), ectoparasites (ticks and mange mites), and endoparasites (gastrointestinal nematodes and coccidia) on the welfare of dromedary camels. We investigate the physiological and emotional repercussions of parasitism through the lenses of the Five Freedoms and the Five Domains model. This review demonstrates that parasitic diseases severely impact camel welfare, yet it highlights significant deficiencies in the species-specific assessment and surveillance systems needed to address these problems. Furthermore, it underscores the relationship between camel welfare, human health through zoonotic parasites, and the socio-economic stability of pastoral communities. The review concludes that an integrated, multidisciplinary approach combining veterinary parasitology, animal welfare science, and socioeconomics is urgently required. We advocate for the implementation of a cohesive One Health/One Welfare framework to establish validated welfare indicators, enhance diagnostic and control strategies, promote community engagement, and inform effective policies. This strategy is crucial for alleviating suffering, improving productivity, and sustaining livelihoods that depend on camels in the face of climate change.

Design and Validation of a Chimeric Vaccine against Trypanosoma evansi ISG75: An In Silico Study

The emergence of coinfection with Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Eimeria stiedai, Giardia lamblia, and Trypanosoma evansi is an important problem that endangers human health, animal quality and public sanitary security. These pathogenic protozoans play important roles in establishment of similar clinical signs of diseases in humans, pigs, sheep, and rabbits, including fever, diarrhea, hepatitis, encephalitis, and reproductive disorders. Therefore, a rapid and specific diagnostic method to simultaneously detect these five pathogens is urgently required. Here, we developed a TaqMan-probe-based quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) for the simultaneous detection of these five pathogens for the first time. Specific primers and probes were designed targeting the G3PDH gene of Toxoplasma gondii, the NC5 gene of Neospora caninum, the ADF gene of Eimeria stiedai, the GDH gene of Giardia lamblia, the COX1 gene of Trypanosoma evansi, and a TaqMan-probe-based pentaplex qPCR assay capable of simultaneously detecting these five pathogens was developed. The assay showed strong specificity, with no cross-reactivity detected against nucleic acids from other control pathogens. The assay demonstrated high sensitivity, with the lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) of 10 copies per reaction for the recombinant plasmid standards pTgG3PDH, pNcNC5, pEsADF, pGlGDH, pTeCOX1, and the limit of detection (LOD) as low as 1.1 copies. The standard curves exhibited excellent linearity (correlation coefficient values of 0.996, 0.996, 0.996, 0.992, and 0.996, respectively) and high amplification efficiencies (95.534%, 96.203%, 107.818%, 100.851%, and 104.487%, respectively). The assay also exhibited excellent repeatability and reproducibility, with inter- and intra-assay coefficient of variation (CV) ranging from 0.07% to 2.13%. The anti-interference test showed that high-concentration nucleic acids did not interfere with low-concentration nucleic acids, thus ensuring excellent detection results even in complex samples. Among 210 clinical samples, the assay detected Toxoplasma gondii in 2.38%, Neospora caninum in 2.38%, Eimeria stiedai in 10%, and Giardia lamblia in 36.19%. The coinfection rates were 8.1% for Eimeria stiedai & Giardia lamblia. This TaqMan-probe-based pentaplex qPCR assay offers a rapid, sensitive, and specific tool for the simultaneous detection of Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Eimeria stiedai, Giardia lamblia, and Trypanosoma. It is of great significance to safeguard human health.

Equine trypanosomiasis is a neglected protozoal disease. To answer the study question: In equines what are the effects of disease management of trypanosomiasis on disease severity (individual level) and disease prevalence (population level) compared to no intervention? Systematic review. Studies were identified that described management of naturally occurring equine trypanosomiasis in any country following 'Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses' using eight international databases (1980-2022). Risk of bias was assessed using ROBINS-I. Data synthesis was descriptive. Thirty studies were included (9 case reports, 5 case series, 15 cohorts, 1 randomised non-inferiority trial). Risk of bias was 'serious' (22/30), 'moderate' (7/30), 'low' (1/30). Heterogeneity was high. Disease severity (individual): Trypanosoma evansi: all evaluated trypanocides were effective in blood parasitaemia clearance (weak evidence). Clinical relapses were common (n = 60/241 equines treated; 25%) (strong evidence). Efficacy was poor once neurological signs were present (n = 12/19 equines; 63% mortality) (strong evidence). Trypanosoma equiperdum: a combination protocol could be curative before CNS invasion (weak evidence). Tsetse transmitted trypanosomiasis: Treatment of haemolymphatic disease with isometamidium or diminazene resulted in a positive clinical response (strong evidence). New/recrudescing infections were common in some regions (strong evidence). Trypanosoma vivax: treatment with high-dose diminazene had a poor clinical outcome (weak evidence). Disease prevalence (population): a multifaceted control programme was effective in reducing disease prevalence (weak evidence). Early (<2 days post-infection) treatment was more effective (weak evidence). Reported side effects were uncommon (n = 70/7888 equines; 1%) (strong evidence). Isometamidium chloride (0.5 mg/kg i.v.) can cause a shock response (13%; range 10-14; n = 14/105) (strong evidence). Publication bias, heterogeneity, descriptive data. Short-term trypanocide response for haemolymphatic disease was positive but optimisation of treatment protocols is required to reduce relapse and combat neurotrypanosomiasis. Reliance on trypanocidal treatment alone is common. Side effects are rare but can be severe.

Trypanosoma evansi infection (Surra) remains a major constraint to equine health and productivity in Thailand. The only available trypanocidal drug, diminazene aceturate (DA), has limited efficacy, poor blood-brain barrier penetration, and toxicity in horses. This study aimed to investigate the in vitro inhibitory effects of commonly used equine antibiotics, gentamicin (GMC), ceftiofur (CTF), and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TS), against T. evansi (Thai strain isolated from dairy cattle number 953; TEDC 953) to identify potential therapeutic alternatives or adjuncts for equine trypanosomosis. An in vitro growth inhibition assay was conducted using the T. evansi TEDC 953 strain cultivated in Hirumi's Modified Iscove's medium 9 (HMI-9 medium) containing 20% horse serum under controlled conditions (37°C, 5% CO2, 75% humidity). Serial dilutions of DA, GMC, CTF, and TS were tested in duplicate across three independent experiments. Parasite viability was assessed after 48 h by microscopic examination, and the half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) was determined using nonlinear regression analysis in GraphPad Prism 5. Among the three antibiotics, GMC and CTF significantly inhibited T. evansi growth in vitro, whereas TS showed no inhibitory effect. The EC50 values were 1.25 × 10-5 ± 3.90 × 10-6 mg/mL for DA, 0.22 ± 0.08 mg/mL for GMC, and 0.08 ± 0.05 mg/mL for CTF. Parasite viability assays confirmed that GMC (5 mg/mL) and CTF (0.2 mg/mL) completely eliminated T. evansi after 48 h of exposure. These findings provide the first in vitro evidence of the trypanocidal potential of GMC and CTF against the Thai strain of T. evansi. GMC and CTF exhibited substantial inhibitory activity against T. evansi under in vitro conditions, supporting their potential use as repurposed or adjunct antibiotics for trypanocidal therapy in horses. This preliminary evidence underscores the need for in vivo validation, pharmacokinetic profiling, and mechanistic studies to explore synergistic effects with conventional trypanocides such as DA.

Therapeutic potential of Brassica oleracea phenolics against Trypanosoma evansi: In vivo efficacy, safety, and molecular profiling

Comparison of IgM and IgG ELISAs using recombinant thrombospondin-related adhesive protein (BgTRAP) for the differentiation of early and late Babesia gibsoni infections in canines.

Trypanosoma evansi, the causative agent of Surra, is a significant emerging zoonotic kinetoplastid protozoan parasite with wide host range and limited chemotherapeutic options. Arginine kinase is mainly responsible for providing metabolic plasticity and maintaining cellular homeostasis of trypanosome under adverse conditions. This study investigated the in vitro anti-trypanosomal activity of Vanilloid derivative, Capsaicin against T. evansi and its effect on mRNA expression of arginine kinase enzyme in T. evansi. Herein, we determined the anti-trypanosomal activity of Capsaicin against T. evansi and its safety towards mammalian cells by estimating the selectivity index. From the dataset generated during the experiments, the IC50 values of capsaicin was determined as 115µM, respectively. Cytotoxicity assays showed that Capsaicin exhibited moderate cytotoxicity against equine PBMC and Vero cells line with CC50 value of 309.8µM and 308.3µM, respectively giving a selectivity index of around 2.68 at the therapeutic dose against T. evansi. Real-time PCR analysis revealed that Capsaicin showed significant alteration of mRNA expression of arginine kinase 1 gene at 24 and 48h of exposure with IC50 of drug. The study suggests that Capsaicin may be a potential approach for treating T. evansi infections, warranting further in vivo investigations.

Simple SummaryThis study investigated the molecular detection, phylogenetic analysis, and risk factors associated with Trypanosoma evansi infection in camels from ten districts in Punjab, Pakistan. Blood samples from 400 camels were analyzed using microscopic examination and PCR assays. The study found a higher prevalence of T. evansi through PCR (14.8%) compared to microscopy (8.3%). Phylogenetic analysis showed 100% homology with isolates from India, Sudan, Malaysia, Egypt, and Kenya. The study identified female gender and being in Southern Punjab as significant risk factors for T. evansi infection. The research provides new molecular and phylogenetic data on T. evansi isolates from the study area.Trypanosomiasis significantly impacts camel health and productivity, posing a major challenge to food security in regions with large camel populations. In this study, we investigated the microscopic and molecular prevalence, performed phylogenetic analysis, and explored risk factors associated with Trypanosoma evansi (T. evansi) infection in 400 randomly selected suspected camels (Camelus dromedarius) from 10 districts of Punjab, Pakistan. Blood samples were collected for microscopic examination of Giemsa/Field’s-stained smears, and three PCR primer sets (ITS1CF/BR, pMUTec, RoTat 1.2) were used to detect the presence of T. evansi. PCR-based prevalence was higher (14.8%; CI 11.4–18.6) as compared to the microscopic examination (8.3%; CI 5.7–11.4) of samples. The targeted primers amplified DNA fragments of 210, 205, and 478 base pairs, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis showed 100% homology between local isolates and those from India, Sudan, Malaysia, Egypt, and Kenya. Risk analysis identified female gender (OR 2.1) and being in Southern Punjab (OR: 1.9) as significant factors associated with disease. Significantly (p < 0.05) reduced total protein (5.51 ± 0.05), albumin (2.77 ± 0.04), and globulin (2.57 ± 0.06) levels were found in PCR-positive camels. This study provides new molecular and phylogenetic data on T. evansi in Pakistan.

Abstract Vector‐borne diseases (VBDs) pose significant risks to animal and human health, emphasizing the need for ongoing surveillance and mapping to support risk assessments. EFSA‐Animal disease profiles were created to visualize the current understanding of main characteristic of important pathogens affecting animal health, including information on the potential vector status of several VBDs. This report updates a previous protocol for a review of the vector status of 36 selected pathogens (Massoels et al., 2023); and adds the protocol for review of the vector status of tick‐borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) and Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. complex. Two systematic literature reviews are conducted, focusing on detection of pathogens in field‐collected arthropods and vector competence under laboratory conditions. In addition, the protocol also addresses mechanical transmission of pathogens by arthropods, an often‐underestimated route of disease spread. A narrative review will investigate arthropod species that may serve as mechanical vectors of six pathogens: Coxiella burnetii (Q fever), equine infectious anaemia virus (EIAV), lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), Trypanosoma evansi (surra), Trypanosoma vivax, and Besnoitia besnoiti (bovine besnoitiosis). Evidence will be collated from experimental transmission studies, field detection, and epidemiological investigations, and classified by type and strength. The integrated results will assess the vector status of arthropod species on a global scale, providing an updated overview of species suspected or confirmed to play a role in disease transmission. A pathogen‐vector matrix will be created to support future risk assessments, surveillance strategies, and control measures for vector‐borne and mechanically transmitted infections in the EU and neighbouring regions. This work aims to enhance the understanding of vector‐borne diseases and inform evidence‐based decision‐making to mitigate the risks associated with these pathogens. By combining biological and mechanical transmission data, this initiative will provide a comprehensive framework for managing vector‐borne diseases and protecting animal and human health.

Trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma evansi is a major protozoan illness that affects animals worldwide. It is also referred to as “surra” and affects a variety if wild and domestic animals such as sheep, cattle, goats, dogs, buffaloes, pigs, elephants, amongst others. In preparing this review, relevant scientific articles were searched on PubMed, SCOPUS, and Web of Science databases using the keyword “Trypanosoma evansi AND animals”. T. evansi are carried by a vast number of hematophagous flies and are found in the extracellular and internal fluids of certain hosts. Trypanosomosis is mostly characterized by anemia, and the degree of anemia can typically be used as a gauge for the disease's severity. Trypanosomiasis compromises the host animal's immune system and its diagnosis is dependent on a number of factors such as thorough clinical examination, suitable sample collection, sample size, suitable diagnostic test performance, and logical interpretation of test results. The clinical manifestations of trypanosomiasis vary widely in both appearance and severity, ranging from neurological disturbances and skin plaques to vaginal enlargement. Hematophagous biting flies, including Tabanus, Haematopota, Glossina, Chrysops, Lyperosia, Stomoxys, and Hippobusca flies, contribute to the spread of trypanosomiasis. Four medications are primarily used to treat trypanosomiasis: quinapyramine, karetin, diminazene aceturate (Berenil), and melarsomine (cymelarsan). An efficient vaccination program is an additional technique for managing infectious diseases in addition to treatment. The most important step in curtailing the spread of trypanosomiasis caused by T. evansi is to stop its transmission by flies via physical and chemical methods.

Background: Trypanosoma evansi, the causative agent of surra, poses a major veterinary concern in tropical regions, particularly affecting cattle and buffalo. The disease leads to reproductive failures, including abortion, and significant economic losses. Early and accurate diagnosis is crucial for effective control, especially in endemic, resource-limited areas. Objectives: This study aimed to develop a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for rapid detection of T. evansi and evaluate its diagnostic performance in comparison with conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the CATT/T. evansi card agglutination test. Materials and methods: Four LAMP primers were designed to target the RoTat 1.2 variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) gene of T. evansi. Optimal reaction parameters, including temperature and incubation time, were established. The LAMP assay, conventional PCR, and the CATT/T. evansi card agglutination test were performed on 79 blood samples collected from cattle with suspected trypanosomiasis in northern Thailand (Lamphun and Chiang Mai). Diagnostic sensitivity, specificity, and agreement between tests were statistically analyzed. Results: The LAMP assay detected T. evansi in 32 (40.5%, 95% CI: 29.8-51.9%) samples, slightly outperforming PCR, which detected 30 (37.9%, 95% CI: 27.6-49.0%). However, this difference was not statistically significant (McNemar’s test, p=0.724). The CATT/T. evansi test yielded 45 (56.9%) positives but lacked the ability to differentiate active infection from prior exposure. Conclusion: The LAMP assay demonstrated high sensitivity, specificity, and rapid detection capabilities under simplified conditions, making it highly suitable for field applications. When paired with colorimetric or lateral flow readouts, LAMP offers a promising point-of-care diagnostic tool for improving trypanosomiasis control in endemic regions.

Background:Trypanosoma evansi is a protozoan parasite that causes trypanosomiasis, referred to as ‟surra.” It affects a wide variety of both wild and domesticated species on many continents. The primary host species differ geographically; however, camelids, equine, buffalo, and farm animals are at risk of infection. In vector-borne sickness, numerous species of blood-consuming flies, along with Tabanids and Stomoxys, are involved in transporting pathogens from one animal to another, acting as mechanical vectors.Aim:This study was established to evaluate the prevalence of T. evansi in sheep in Baghdad and investigate the impact of age and sex on the infection rate.Methods:A total of 200 blood samples were obtained from October 2023 to March 2024. These samples were examined using Giemsa stain under a light microscope, and 40 positive samples were selected for further investigation using conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR).Results:The results showed an infection rate of 20%, with significant differences observed between male and female sheep. Younger sheep were found to be significantly more affected than older ones. Ten PCR-detected samples were randomly selected for DNA molecular analysis to obtain ITS-1 gene nucleotide sequences. The PCR product exhibited a band size of 1,264 bp, and the sequences were deposited in the National Center for Biotechnology Information under the following code numbers: PP930358.1, PP930353.1, PP930350.1, PP930357.1, PP930356.1, PP930351.1, PP930359.1, PP930352.1, PP930354.1, and PP930355.1.Conclusion:The current study results indicate that T. evansi occurs and circulates in sheep and confirm that the molecular approach for detecting DNA of Trypanosoma species by the use of ITS1 makes it a highly dependable assay for species recognition of this parasite.

Shifting Paradigms: Imidocarb dipropionate as an alternative chemotherapeutic strategy for Trypanosoma evansi infection in animals.

First report of Trypanosoma evansi A-type from the Ecuadorian Amazon: Phylogenetic and structural analyses of the VSG RoTat1.2 fragment.