Truck Tire Research Articles

Treatment of Scrap Tire for Rubber and Carbon Black Recovery

In this study, a chemical dissolution treatment was used to recover rubber and carbon black (CB) from truck tire scrap, with gas oil acting as the solvent and 4-Hydroxy-TEMPO acting as the catalyst for the chemical reactions. Montmorillonite clay was used to separate the rubber solution from the CB and the other non-dissolved tire additives. The recovered rubber and CB were characterized together with the original scrap tire sample by XRD, SEM, BET and thermal analysis, as well as FTIR and 1H NMR spectral analyses. Characterization of the chemical structure of the recovered rubber showed that the main functional groups of styrene−butadiene rubber blend with natural rubber. The thermal behavior and crystalline structure of the recovered rubber, as well as its morphological images, showed that the properties of the rubber sample were acceptable and similar to natural rubber. The recovered CB characterizations showed that the sample after pyrolysis was a highly crystalline nanocomposite structure with a high specific surface area and scattered pores.

Plastic in the air?! - Spider webs as spatial and temporal mirror for microplastics including tire wear particles in urban air

Studies concerning quantities of microplastics (MP) including tire wear particles (TWP) contamination in air samples are scarce. Spider webs have been suggested as a cheap and easily accessible biomonitor particularly for inorganic contaminates. Here, we emphasize the potential of spider webs to gain insights in the spatial and temporal trends of MP in urban air. The samples, collected in a mid-sized German city, were processed with Fentons reagent and measured using pyrolysis-gas chromatography–mass spectrometry for specific, polymer related indicator compounds. All samples contained TWP and other MP. The latter are detected and quantified as pyrolysis products of a polymer backbone. The results were expressed as clusters (prefix “C”). Determined polymer contaminations ranged from 11.4 μg/mg to 108 μg/mg spider web sample. The dominant polymer was C-PET (Ø 36.0% of total MP) derived most likely from textile fibers. Additionally, there was evidence for traffic-related contaminations. In particular car tire tread (Ø 40.8% of total MP) and ⁎C-PVC (Ø 12.0% of total MP) were found, with the latter presumably originating from paint used for road markings. Truck tire tread, C-PE, C-PP, C-PS, C-PMMA, and C-PC were also frequently found, but in much lower abundance (Ø <6.4% of total MP). Differences in contamination levels could be plausibly related to the sampling locations.

Predictions of three-dimensional contact stresses of a radial truck tire under different driving modes

In pavement design, vehicle load is typically simplified as vertical circular uniform loading. Due to the vehicle dynamic effect and deformation of a tire, non-uniform three-dimensional contact stresses are produced at the contact interface between the tire and pavement under different driving modes. For this paper, an 11R22.5 truck radial tire was selected. Considering the geometric nonlinearity and large deformation of the tire and nonlinear characteristics of tire-pavement contact, the Neo-Hookean and Rebar models are used to simulate the hyperelastic rubber material and rubber-cord composite material, respectively. The three-dimensional contact stress distribution under static, free rolling, acceleration, braking, and cornering modes was simulated and analyzed. The results show that inflation pressure, axle load, and friction coefficient of the tire significantly affect the three-dimensional contact stress distribution. Further, three-dimensional stresses are non-uniformly distributed, rather than in the traditional simplified circular uniform load. The three-dimensional stress distribution of tire-pavement in different driving modes is also significantly different. The vertical and lateral stresses in the state of cornering are the largest, the longitudinal stress in the state of braking is the largest as well. The research results provide reference for future pavement design and pavement damage analysis.

Dynamic load responses of perpetual pavement test roads on U.S. 23: Full-scale instrumentation and evaluation

Perpetual pavement experimental roads of varying asphalt concrete thicknesses (28 cm, 33 cm & 38 cm) were constructed and instrumented on U.S. Route 23 in Delaware County, Ohio. Controlled Vehicle Load (CVL) testing was performed to obtain dynamic load responses under vehicular load and to evaluate influence of vehicle speed, tire pressure and axle configuration. CVL tests were conducted in November 2012 and July 2013 to evaluate temperature effects on pavement responses. A linear elastic finite element model program, OpenPave was used to obtain layered elastic solutions of load responses with time history to validate measured results. Paired t-tests were performed to compare mean difference between measured and calculated strain responses. Factorial ANOVA test was performed to evaluate significance of truck speed and tire pressure on measured strain responses. It was found that the calculated strain responses were overall in good agreement with the measure values. A uniquely designed strain gage rosette was installed to obtain vertical strain in the pavement and was found to be effective. However, significant differences existed between measured and calculated strain responses in summer test due to unaccountability of the FE program for viscoelasticity of asphalt concrete materials. 33 cm section with stabilized subgrade performed the best with lowest strain responses. Tandem axle truck produced strains lower than single axle truck even though total weight was heavier. Transverse strain tends to increase as lateral wheel offset increases.

Modelling of Off-Road Truck Tire-Rim Slip Using Finite Element Analysis

&lt;div class="section abstract"&gt;&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Slip or relative rotation between the tire and rim is a significant concern for vehicle operation and wheel manufacturing since it leads to wheel imbalance and vibration as well as power losses. A slip situation typically occurs due to improper bead lubrication and mounting, irregularities in the bead seat, and extreme loading conditions with high torques and low tire pressures. Currently, there are relatively few published studies on the tire-rim interface, and they mainly focus on topics such as the mounting process, load transfer, and friction modelling. This leaves a gap to explore the measurement and variation of gross tire-rim slip under the dynamic conditions of a driven tire. In this paper, a previously developed and validated FEA truck tire model was modified to include a frictional contact surface between the tire and rim, and then the slip ratio between the tire and rim was measured under different operating conditions. The new model’s static behavior was compared to the previously validated model with the fixed tire-rim connection, then the model parameters such as vertical load, inflation pressure, drawbar load, longitudinal wheel speed, and tire-rim friction were varied and their effects on the tire-rim slip of the driven truck tire were investigated. It was discovered that factors affecting the torque transmitted through the wheel, including the tire-rim friction, vertical load, and inflation pressure, had the most significant effect, while the longitudinal wheel speed had a minimal effect on the tire-rim slip. The findings of this research work will be useful for determining the tire-rim slip under various operating conditions.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

Influence of Specific Power on the Solid and Liquid Products Obtained in the Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis of End-of-Life Tires

In this work, chemical recycling as an alternative to conventional end-of-life treatments was studied. Two different types of end-of-life tires (ELT), truck tires and mix tires (50:50 mixture of passenger car and truck tires), were pyrolyzed in a batch microwave reactor. The influence of specific power (10, 20, and 30 W/g) on mass distribution was analyzed. The maximum liquid yield was attained at 10 W/g, while the maximum gas yield is obtained at 30 W/g. Liquid fractions were characterized by gas chromatography/quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC/qMS) to identify the main components, and major compounds were quantified. In all samples, limonene (3.76 ± 0.31–6.80 ± 2.37 wt. %) and BTEX (3.83 ± 0.20–1.19 ± 2.80 wt. %) were the main components. Major limonene concentration is obtained in oil produced from truck ELT while higher yields of aromatic compounds are obtained from mix ELT. The maximum BTEX concentration is obtained at 10 W/g being toluene the main compound with a concentration of 2.07 ± 0.42 and 4.63 ± 1.29 for truck and mix ELT, respectively. The separation and purification of these compounds will confer important value to these fractions. Higher yields of the solid fraction are produced when mix tires are pyrolyzed due to the higher concentration of ash in this type of ELT. Recovered carbon black was characterized by measuring the surface area.

Finite Element Analysis of elastomer: Case study – Rolling resistances of pneumatic and solid tyres

EU tyre labelling rules have been applied since November 1st, 2012, to inform about the performances of tyres on fuel efficiency (rolling resistance), safety (braking on wet surfaces) and noise (external noise). The tyre labels help customers to make their purchase decisions by trade off on tyre performances and prices. Consequently, manufacturers have to engineer their products so that their tyres are classified on top of the label categories. Tyre rolling resistance involves in many kinds of tyre knowledge such as rubber formulations, tyre structures and tyre tread patterns. Generally, 70% of tyre rolling resistance depends on the hysteresis properties of rubber compounds and 30% depends on other properties such as road conditions, tyre pressures, load carrying, vehicle speeds, and tyre tread designs. From this point of view, even if rubber compounds are formulated to have good hysteresis properties, they can help reduce tyre rolling resistance up to 70%. If tyre rolling resistance needs to be further reduced, tread designs have to be considered. Therefore, this case study will show how to reduce tyre rolling resistance by using Finite Element Analysis (FEA). Pneumatic light truck tyres were used to study their tread patterns, tread depths and contact areas affecting their rolling resistances, while solid tyres were used to study on their tread patterns, tread depths, contact areas and tyre structures affecting their rolling resistances. The FEA results showed that tread patterns had high effects on rolling resistance of pneumatic light truck tyres while they had little effects on solid tyres. Contact areas and tread depths affected rolling resistances of both tyres. Increase in contact areas reduced tyre rolling resistances while increase in tread depths resulted in higher tyre rolling resistances.

Experimental and Theoretical Study of the Flow Characteristics of Rubber Compounds in an Extruder Screw

AbstractWe describe an experimental and theoretical study of the mechanisms of flow of rubber compounds in a screw extruder. Two compounds, a typical synthetic rubber (butadiene-styrene copolymer-cis-1, 4 polybutadiene) based passenger tire tread (PTT) and a natural rubber based truck tire tread (TTT), were investigated in a 112${}^{1}/{}_{2}$inch NRM cold feed screw extruder using a screw with a constant channel depth and constant channel pitch along the whole screw length. The rubber was cured in place and the screw removed. The screw exhibited starvation behavior except near the die. The length of the rubber strip in the screw is proportional to the pressure developed at the die. Marker studies showed transverse circulating flows beginning in the region immediately downstream from the hopper. These observations indicate that cold feed extruders exhibit a metering region flow, albeit sometimes starved, from entry port to die. Under these conditions the extruder is independent of the pressure developed in the screw channel. A simple non-Newtonian isothermal mathematical model for the metering zone is described. The rubber compound is considered as a pseudoplastic material with a yield value. A comparison of theory and experiment shows that a one dimensional isothermal model quite accurately predicts the flow rate pressure development of the rubber compound in our screw (with a shallow prismatic channel) when starvation is considered. The yield value of the rubber compound influences screw characteristic curves only for very high values of the dimensionless pressure gradient.

ANALYSIS OF THE OCCUPATIONAL ACCIDENTS CHANCE IN MINING, PROCESSING, AND WHORKSHOPS AT PT. LEMON ISLAND, SOUTH MANOKWARI DISTRICT, MANOKWARI REGENCY

The importance of task identification using the job safety analysis method is to detail the works based on work sequences and risks possibly arising. Job safety analysis can be used as a first step to find out the potential accident and to make accident controls. The results show that the potential accidents can be identified based on their severity. High risk, causing physical disability to death, occurs in gravel processing work using jaw crusher, gravel hauling, concrete mixing, and casting. Moderate risk, causing treatments at the hospital, includes welding, repairing excavator buckets, stacking and tidying material, screening stones and sand, and cutting iron. Low risk, which can be handled with first aid, includes excavating material, loading, painting iron frame, curling and straightening iron, repairing bulldozer body, repairing bulldozer machine, repairing dump truck glass, replacing dump truck coupling, replacing dump truck tires, replacing dump truck brake, repairing dump truck bucket, repairing excavator engine, repairing excavator crawler, and repairing the engine of concrete pump trucks. In addition, PT. Pulau Lemon has not properly implemented the use of personal protective equipment and work protective equipment for their worker, therefore it is still needed to do some required improvement.

Simulation of Static Tyre–Pavement Interaction Using Two FE Models of Different Complexity

The aim of this research study was to analyse the approaches for establishing a spatial model of a radial truck tyre, based on the finite element method, in order to perform a realistic analysis of static as well as dynamic tyre–pavement interactions. A complex rubber tyre model having a large number of elements was formulated combining current state-of-the-art modelling techniques and, from that model, a simplified model having a smaller number of elements was derived. The complex model proved to be useful only for static loading, because of its high computational demand, while the simplified model proved to be also suitable for dynamic modelling. The two tyre models having different numbers of elements were compared by analysing the contact areas and stresses. Our results indicate that the basic idea of not changing material characteristics while simplifying the model, rebuilding only the carcass using composite shell elements, did not prove to be a satisfactory direction. The results given by the simplified model do not describe the behaviour of the radial tyre well but, rather, describe the behaviour of the diagonal tyre, regarding contact areas and stresses. On the contrary, when analysing stresses and strains in the road pavement structure, the two finite element models provided similar results in practice. Based on our comparison calculations, applying the average contact pressure q at analysis points at a 5–8 cm depth, the contact behaviour of the finite element tyre model can be used in any elastic-layer theory-based software.

Mine Heavy Truck Tire Inflation to Nitrogen Technology and Maintenance Exploration

Mine Heavy Truck Tire Inflation to Nitrogen Technology and Maintenance Exploration

Trends in particulate matter generation from truck and bus radial tires using a wear tester

AbstractThis study aimed to analyze the trend of particulate matter (PM) generation from tires by nonexhaust systems. These types of PM are lesser known than the airborne PM generated from automotive exhaust systems. Specimens with rubber formulations similar to commercial tires for trucks and buses were artificially abraded, and the generated PM was analyzed. Abrasion of a specimen made of butadiene rubber, which is a synthetic rubber, generated lesser PM than a natural rubber specimen. This reduction of PM generation was particularly significant for PM10. Furthermore, using carbon black (a filler in tires) having small sized particles, the generation of PM2.5 was reduced to a large extent. To study the influence of tire aging on the increased generation of PM, rubber specimens were analyzed after prolonged exposure to a high temperature.

Constitutive rubber model suitable for rolling resistance simulations of truck tyres

Tyres are a vital vehicle component forming an interface between a vehicle and the road, enabling the generation of braking, steering and traction forces. However, they also generate rolling resistance which researchers have tried to minimise through the years for environmental and economic reasons. Despite numerous attempts to model rolling resistance of tyres there still does not seem to exist a simple, flexible and accepted way of modelling rolling resistance in the time domain as well as parametrising models in an easy and accessible way. This study explores a simple and intuitive way of parametrising a hyperviscoplastic parallel rheological framework. In the experimental part of this study, rubber samples with various amounts of carbon black filler are extracted from a truck tyre section and tested using dynamic mechanical analysis. The test data was used to parametrise the material model. The model consists of Mooney-Rivlin hyperelasticity, 40 Prony elements and 8 perfectly plastic elements with Ogden hyperelasticity. The paper introduces a method to obtain a large number of parameters using only six tuneable parameters, which simplifies the tuning of the model drastically. The parametrised model is suitable for tyre rolling resistance simulations with frequency and strain amplitude dependency of the storage and loss modulus. A wide range of strain amplitudes and frequencies can be covered with the proposed method and it is possible to achieve a good fit for the storage and loss modulus values with the benefit of only a few tuneable parameters. Additional Prony or plastic networks do not increase the amount of tuneable parameters. Moreover, the method can be used to parametrise the material using manual iterations which is generally not possible for a parallel rheological framework with such a large amount of parameters.

Системи управління тиском повітря в шинах транспортних засобів: їх конструктивні та функціональні особливості

The development and improvement of tire pressure and control systems in car tires is important because the tire pressure recommended by the developer plays a key role in the formation of the contact zone with the road surface. In accordance with the set goal, the analysis of tire pressure control systems of vehicles protected by patents, manufactured by leading manufacturers of these systems, have unique design features. It is noted that over the past decade, many research organizations and teams of scientists have paid considerable attention to improving the design of tire pressure management systems, among which are: - devices for centralized control of tire pressure, by means of which the air pressure in the tires can change during the movement of the car depending on road conditions; - devices for decentralized control of tire pressure allow to maintain the air pressure in each wheel separately depending on the load on the wheels and the conditions of interaction of the deformed wheel with the ground. At the same time, the presence of a large number of patents and designs of such systems requires some systematization, studying the problem of installing these systems on domestic cars. The aim of the article is to analyze the pressure control systems in the tires of vehicles, the study of their design features and functionality. To achieve this goal used a systematic approach to the analysis of this problem methods, methods of analysis of patents and designs of these systems, the method of classification, the method of generalization. The analysis allows us to recognize the prospects for the creation of systems focused on the use of digital technologies that provide automatic monitoring and regulation of pressure, automatic detection of damaged tires, the possibility of remote access to the system. The scientific novelty of the article is determined by the fact that it systematizes the data on the designs of the studied systems, identifies points that need improvement. The research allowed to determine the directions of improvement of pressure control systems in truck tires, what is the practical significance of this article.

A novel economically viable method of preparation of graphene-rubber masterbatch for its application in tyre compound

Properties of rubber composites can be improved by the incorporation of graphene. However, it is practically not feasible to use graphene in tyre compound because of its high-cost and difficult to disperse it in the rubber matrix. The present study demonstrates the development of a novel, cost-effective method of manufacturing graphene-rubber masterbatch (GRMB). Aqueous dispersion of graphene (10 wt%) was prepared by high-speed ball milling (500 RPM for 7 h) of graphite in presence of surfactant (5% w/w with respect to graphite). The graphene thus produced was characterized through X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The XRD results confirmed the exfoliation of graphitic layers, defect generation in graphene was identified from Raman spectroscopy and AFM image proved the formation of graphene sheets. The graphene dispersion thus produced was mixed with natural rubber (NR) latex using magnetic stirrer at 500 RPM for 3 h maintaining 15% of graphene in GRMB. After mixing, the mass was dried in a vacuum oven at 80 °C. After that 3.33 phr (parts per hundred parts of rubber by weight) of GRMB (0.5 phr graphene) was added in truck and bus radial (TBR) tyre tread compound. The addition of GRMB significantly improved tensile modulus (21.5%), tensile strength (3.8%), hardness (5.1%) and tear strength (17.4%) of the regular TBR tyre tread compound. In GRMB, graphene was in pre-dispersed form enabling easy dispersion in final tyre compound. The graphene thus produced was economically viable since no expensive materials, and complicated synthesis and purification methods were used.

ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF RETREADED TIRES

Regulations R(EC)661/2009 and R(EC)1222/2009 established environmental requirements for new tires and their labeling, not applicable in principle to retreaded tires. However, in anticipation of future revisions, different studies were promoted, mainly oriented to truck tires, the main market for retreading. Two lines of research were opened at UMH, focused respectively on the study of rolling resistance and rolling noise.

IMPROVING THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THE RUBBER COMPOUND OF THE VEHICLES’ TIRES: A LITERATURE OVERVIEW

People are shifting from use of fossil fuel based processing oils to naturally occurring oils, and restriction on PCA rich extender oils by December 2009 leads to search for naturally occurring oils. According to the KEMI report, products with polycyclic aromatic compounds, PCAs, levels exceeding 3% by weight must be labeled. The report pointed out that worn tyre tread material was being spread on the roadsides, introducing high amounts of PCA into the environment. PCA is having toxic effects on aquatic organisms. For the sidewall tyre rubber, the way to improve the properties is a stepwise downsizing method of gel particles in reclaimed rubber to a micro-nano scale and its excellent dynamic performance in tire sidewall were introduced by this work. In the present work, two naturally occurring oils, neem oil and kurunj oil, were characterised in a 100% Natural Rubber based formulation, a NR/BR blend based Bias Truck and Rib Type Tyre Tread Cap compound and a SSBR/NR/BR blend based Radial Passenger Tyre Tread compound. Compounds made with naturally occurring oils showed better abrasion properties. These oils were found to be suitable also on the basis of low PCA content. The results for the tyre sidewall showed that the size of gel particles decreased from several micrometers to micro-nanometers with the increase of reclaiming degree, accompanied by reduced molecular weight and widened molecular weight distribution of sol fraction. The addition of reclaimed rubber with low Mooney viscosity improved the dynamic mechanical properties of the natural rubber/butadiene rubber blends effectively, including wet resistance and rolling resistance. Moreover, the flexing fatigue resistance has also been improved dozens of times compared to traditional tire sidewall.

Оценка формирования ресурса шин грузовых автомобилей в горных условиях при строительстве Рогунской гидроэлектростанции

In the harsh mountainous conditions of the operation of trucks during the construction of hydraulic structures, the car tire is the most vulnerable element that determines the efficiency of the transport process and the cost of transportation. Due to a significant decrease in the resource of truck tires in the harsh mountain conditions, the cost of operating a vehicle increases significantly. The purpose of the study is related to the assessment, adjustment and regulation of the resource, as well as planning the costs of purchasing and the entire life cycle of truck tires operated in mountainous conditions. The work is devoted to the assessment of the formation of the resource of truck tires in the mountainous conditions of the construction of the Rogun HPP, taking into account the influence of the most significant factors. To assess the formation of the resource of truck tires in the mountainous conditions of the construction of the Rogun HPP, an integrated scientific approach was used, taking into account the most significant factors. The assessment of the influence of fluctuations of external influences on the object of research, depending on the conditions and nature of the process of formation of the tire resource was carried out by the probabilistic-statistical method, and the empirical characteristics of the distribution of the above factors were calculated by the method of V.I. Romanovsky. The simplified mathematical model presented in the article can be recommended when adjusting the tire resources of trucks in mountainous conditions during the construction of hydraulic structures (for example, the construction of the Rogun HPP). The practical significance of the work is associated with the selection and planning of the need for automobile tires, operated in mountain conditions. The research results can be recommended for assessing the resource of tires of various standard sizes and designs mounted on trucks of various modifications, operated in various road and climatic conditions during the construction of hydraulic structures.

Development of a Novel Aeration Measurement System to Evaluate Water Treatment Process in a River

A novel aeration measurement system was developed to evaluate the water treatment process in a river to acquire a more comparable dissolved oxygen value even if various types of aerations are tested. The system comprises of DO sensor, water flowmeter, anemometer, PVC pipes, water pump, air compressor pump, and truck tyre tubes. The PVC pipes consisting of a main drainage hole, 5 holes for dissolve oxygen data collection, 1 hole as the location of aerator system, and connectors were designed as the major part of the system by using Computer Aided Design software. The main drainage hole (horizontal pipe) was designed to be 288.5 cm in length, while the measured holes (vertical pipes) were designed to be 45.7 cm in height. By considering a systematic approach, the designed system is hopefully able to solve measuring issue of dissolved oxygen in moving water and to provide a better evaluation of water treatment process.

Modernization of the Hunter method for testing steel cord in accordance with the operating conditions of a car tire

The relevance of research and development of methods for testing steel cord and thin wire in industrial production to improve the quality of products and the degree of its compliance with the requirements of the automobile tires production is shown. A numerical experiment was carried out on the operation of a car tire on the example of an automobile truck tire of standard size 315/80R22.5 as the most loaded tire for mass use in trucks. Numerical experiments were carried out with the MSC Marc software Rebar material, which considers the change in the stiffness matrix in dependence on the radial coordinate and designates the mathematical model of the rubber-cord system. It was determined that the most suitable method for testing steel cord and thin wire during its production is the Hunter method. The scheme of modernization of the classical Hunter method is proposed, which is close to the loads of a truck tire. An analysis of the cyclic loading of a steel cord during testing using the technology of the modernized Hunter method is carried out and a comparison with the classical Hunter method is given, as well as a comparison with a numerical experiment on the operation of a truck tire. According to the obtained results, it is recommended to introduce the modernized Hunter method by reconstructing existing installations for testing wire and steel cord in order to improve the quality of inspection and testing of steel cord and thin wire in industrial conditions.