Truck Tire Research Articles

Numerical analysis of rubber tire/rail contact behavior in road cum rail vehicle under different inflation pressure values using finite element method

With the advent of Rail cum road motors there are great demanding situations earlier than Indian railways. Railway Engineers had been for all time interested by the metal wheel-Rail and Rubber tire-Rail contacts. These tiny interfaces govern the dynamic overall performance of avenue cum rail motors via the masses it transmits and, like every high-strain attention sector, it's far subjected to severe damage phenomena. The paper deals with modelling and simulation of the static behaviour of a radial mini truck tire of a proposed road cum rail automobile in touch with rails. The Finite element technique via the ANSYS software program is used to obtain the static behaviour of the rubber tire in contact with rail underneath inflation stress values. The primary goal is to carry out a finite detail analysis and computationally compare the overall performance of a stationary rubber tire along with rim on rails with the aid of changing the inflation stress so that corresponding overall performance parameters like equivalent strain in rubber tire and rims, deformation and call patch of rubber tire are expected and the effect of inflation pressure on these parameters can be understood.

Influence of undefined modes of movement on instantaneous redistribution of normal reactions of quarry dump truck tires

Reducing the costs of rock transportation in mining is one of the most important tasks. One of the reserves for solving this issue is a more complete use of the service life of quarry dump trucks tires, since their operation takes place in heavy mining and climatic conditions and this significantly reduces the life of tires. The life of tires depends on many factors: speed of movement, compliance with the recommended air pressure in the tire, ambient air temperature, but the main thing is the change in the normal load on the wheel, which depends on the redistribution of the quarry dump truck weight in case of non-linear movement and on the longitudinal profile of the quarry road. In real conditions, the quarry dump truck moves unevenly due to the complexity of the road - either braking or acceleration occur. This article allows you to evaluate the impact of non-linear modes of quarry dump truck movement on the instant redistribution of normal tire reactions and take into account peak loads on wheels during acceleration and braking in the regular cycle. This will allow you to control the load on the tires directly by cargo amount in the quarry dump truck and thereby increase the life of the tires and their reliability, as well as reduce the cost of transporting the rock mass in real operating conditions.

Computer simulation of hyper elastic re-treaded tire rubber with ABAQUS

Tire re-treading is a re-manufacturing process to tread on casing tires. The performance of the re-treaded tire is studied with qualitative and quantitative research process. Since re-treaded tire rubber reveals some special properties like hyper elasticity, it is a very challenging task to simulate the actual performance of the retreaded tire rubber. In this paper, the simulation of hyper elastic property of re-treaded tire rubber is successfully completed with the help of finite element (FEM). Material specimens are taken from belt edge area of the retreaded truck tire. To evaluate the coefficient of hyper elastic strain energy function, uniaxial and planar tension test are conducted. The measured outcomes are compared and only stable model are selected. Yeoh and Arruda-Boyce models were stable. A case study of different size specimen and at different strain are performed where rubber specimen is taken from same belt edge area. The graphs are plotted from the .odb file between stress and deformation of retreaded tire rubber. The same graphs are validated with the lab tested readings. To explore the relation between stress and specimen deformation, a progressive simulation model has been developed. Statistical methods are used to validate the research question; Does hyper elasticity of retreaded tire impact its behavioral quality? Regression analysis is conducted to find out the correlations between stress and deformation of rubber specimen. The value of coefficient of determination (R2) is very close to (1) so it is proved that there is correlation between them. Results obtained are promising to predict the behavior of re-treaded tire rubber. The findings can be used to improve the product and its utility in small tire re-treaders, customers and policymakers.

A heavy load tire six-component force sensor

This paper presents research on design and calibration of a heavy load tire six-component force (including three forces and three moments) sensor. Differ from common tire six-component force sensor, it is designed mainly for truck tire and aircraft tire test. With a four-column structure in its elastic body, size thinning in the middle of every column is designed to get a higher sensitivity in Fy channel. Before fabricating, the ‘virtual calibration’ is carried out, which proves that the design scheme of strain gauge position and elastic body matches well with each other. For there is low crosstalk between every two output channels. The calibration experiment results are not entirely the same as that in ‘virtual calibration’, for factors such as material heat treatment, machining accuracy and the quality of pasting strain gauges increase crosstalks. With decoupling calculation, a high-accuracy heavy load tire six-component force sensor is still obtained.

Influence of tire temperature conditions on the capacity of quarry dump trucks operated in JSC "CC Kuzbassrazrezugol"

More than 50-60% of minerals in Russia and the CIS countries are mined in an open-pit or in mining quarry, as it is the most economical and productive. JSC "CC Kuzbassrazrezugol" ranks second in terms of total coal production among the regions of the Russian Federation and first in Kuzbass. Quarry dump trucks are the main mode of technological transport when transporting mined rock. An important task facing road transport is to reduce the cost of transported products. The components of the costs include fuel, tires, maintenance and repair, maintenance of roads and others. It is possible to reduce tires costs by controlling tires life. Most often, thermal damage causes the emergency decommissioning of tires. It is possible to maintain the optimal temperature regime of quarry dump truck tires with the help of operating modes such as load capacity utilization factor and speed, as well as operating conditions such as ambient temperature and longitudinal slope of the road. In turn, the performance of quarry dump trucks directly depends on the operating modes. On the one hand, the growing utilization factor of load capacity and speed increase the productivity of quarry dump trucks, but at the same time this increases the temperature regime and reduces their reliability. This article proposes a methodology for determining the maximum productivity of quarry dump trucks operated in CC Kuzbassrazrezugol taking into account the temperature regime of tires.

Mechanical properties and dissipation energy of carbon black/rubber composites

The effects of carbon black on the properties of rubber composites were studied in order to explore their value in producing low rolling resistance truck tires. Carbon black with different grades, N330 (coarser grade of 26–30 nm) and N220 (finer grade of 20–25 nm), was used as a reinforcing agent of natural rubber. The effects of different ratios of carbon black N330 at 40, 45, 50 and 55 parts per hundred rubber (phr) and N220 at 30, 35, 40 and 50 phr were investigated. Rubber composites with N220 had greater rubber/carbon black interaction than those with N330. The Mooney viscosity of rubber composite increased when the carbon black ratio increased. After vulcanisation of rubber, the samples were characterised by dynamic mechanical analysis, tensile strength and heat build-up. The results showed that the strength of rubber composites increased with increasing carbon black ratios. Interestingly, at the same bound rubber level, rubber composites with N220 presented lower dissipation energy, heat build-up and better mechanical properties than those with N330. This study indicated that reinforcement with an optimum amount of carbon black N220 would improve several desirable characteristics of rubber composites when used in low rolling resistance truck tires.

Pyrolytic carbon black from truck tires: some new analytical approaches

Pyrolytic carbon black (CBp) from truck tire pyrolysis is a heterogeneous material with relatively high ash content and a relatively high level of volatile bituminous matter (VBM) due to rubber pyrolysis residues coating the CBp surface. It is shown a method to volatilize and trap the VBM into an activated charcoal collector (Orbo-32 large) during a normal TGA scan of a CBp sample. Then, the VBM was analyzed by electronic absorption spectroscopy and by GC-MS revealing 64 different individual components. The main components identified belong to the class of alkylbenzenes and alkylnaphthalenes compounds. However, the VBM releases volatile components up to 510 °C, while with GC-MS were analyzed only the components that are volatile up to 300 °C and representing only 12% of the total VBM sample. VBM was also studied by TGA-DTG-DTA under N2 and under airflow.

Modelling of perpetual pavement performance subjected to varying European three-dimensional truck tire loading

There have been developments to the set-up of trucks in the European Union (EU). A significant development for pavement performance has been the widespread adoption of super single tires for truck trailer axles. This is in contrast to the US that has continued with dual tires for truck trailer axles. These EU trucks have particular operating conditions in terms of tire types, axle loading and inflation pressure. The three tire types used on a EU truck were modelled using finite element analysis for varying inflation pressures and varying axle loading. These loads were represented in the modelling as three dimensional (3-D) contact pressures with vertical, transverse and longitudinal contact pressure components. These loads were modelled as moving loads on a perpetual pavement with a visco-elastic surface course to understand the influence of these loads on the performance of the pavement. The pavement design and the material properties are from the Long Term Pavement Performance Program (LTPP). Surface cracking, top down cracking, bottom up cracking and subgrade rutting were assessed using key strains and the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) predictive equations for the different loading combinations. It was found that there was variability in pavement performance for the different loading combinations with the steering axle giving lower performance than the drive axle for surface and top down cracking. The super single trailer tire gave the lowest performance across all the distress types. This means more than just axle loading is required to assess the distress caused by axles.

Utilization of marble piece wastes as base materials

Abstract With the increasing population, the limited natural sources are decreasing and environmental pollution is increasing. In recent years, the increase in industrial wastes and the high cost of disposal methods of these wastes have necessitated the evaluation of industrial wastes in industrials businesses. Truck tires, blast furnace slag, fly ash, waste concrete, and dismantled asphalt coverings can be listed as industrial wastes. If these wastes are used, environmental pollution is reduced, and contributions are made to the country’s economy. In this study, an evaluation of marble waste as base material was performed. In this scope of work, physical tests, a modified Proctor test, a dry/wet California bearing ratio test, and density of soil in place by the sand cone test were conducted. Also, X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, and mercury intrusion porosimetry analyses were performed on these marble waste. As a result, the physical and mechanical properties of marble waste were determined. In conclusion, marble waste has been found suitable as a base material according to the Technical Specifications of Turkish Highways.

IMPROVEMENT OF SILICA-REINFORCED NATURAL RUBBER TIRE TREAD COMPOUNDS BY JOINT HYBRIDIZATION WITH SMALL AMOUNTS OF SECONDARY FILLERS AND POLYMERS

ABSTRACTTo improve the properties of silica-reinforced truck tire tread compounds, especially abrasion resistance, the effect of vinyl contents in butadiene rubber (BR) or solution styrene–butadiene rubber (SSBR) as secondary polymers in silica-filled natural rubber (NR) compounds at a ratio of 80/20 phr is investigated in the first part of this study. By increasing the levels of vinyl contents in BR in combination with NR, a better Payne effect, 300% modulus, reinforcement index, and tan delta at −20 and 0 ° C are obtained, whereas the tensile strength, elongation at break, and DIN abrasion resistance index decrease with increasing vinyl contents. Higher vinyl contents in SSBR result in improvements in Payne effect, 300% modulus, tan delta at −20 and 0 °C but only a small improvement in DIN abrasion resistance index. Combinations of secondary fillers and polymers in silica-filled NR are covered in the second part of present study. Silica/carbon black–filled NR/BR and NR/SSBR, respectively, and silica/organoclay–filled NR/BR and NR/SSBR show positive effects on scorch time and optimum cure time, with only slight changes in Payne effect, tensile properties, tan delta at −20 and 0 ° C and DIN abrasion resistance as compared with compounds with carbon black N134. The use of organoclay results in an enhanced Payne effect and tan delta at 60 °C, indicative of reduced filler–filler networking and consequently a lower rolling resistance of tire tread compounds as compared with the compound without organoclay. The specific combination of a small amount of organoclay replacing the same amount of silica, together with some of the NR replaced by high-vinyl BR, promises a substantial overall boost in wet and ice traction, abrasion, and wear resistance as compared with straight NR/silica tire treads. This new observation helps to overcome one of the main shortcomings of NR/silica compounds: their generally low wear resistance.

PLC Tabanlı Uygulamalar: Mill Makinelerinde Oluşacak İş Kazalarının PLC Kullanılarak Önlenmesi

In recent years, the use of automation systems has been increasing, and the basis of these automation systems is generally Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) based application. PLC is used for automation in the industry where there are many advanced machines and devices. In industrial automation systems, it is also used Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA), Human - Machine Interface (HMI) systems to ensure safe, quality, and fast production by minimizing human errors and intervention. Because of these systems used in the industries, the automation software developed enables 24/7 production with high quality and low cost. Large-scale companies prefer to use automation systems in order to minimize worker labor and error, prevent work accidents, reduce costs, and make high quality and fast production. PLCs are widely used in packaging systems, especially in the food, chemical, tire, automotive industries, as well as in cement plants, ventilation and cooling facilities, and textile factories. These systems, which are widely used in industries, are preferred due to simple programming structure, ease of setup, use and assembly, durable operation in difficult working environments, low failure, low maintenance cost, and low energy consumption. This article presents the usage and application areas of PLC based automation systems. In addition, a case study is presented that Mill machines, commonly found in truck tire manufacturing factories, are secured using PLC and HMI. Input and output cards have been added to these machines to provide security automatically. As a result of the case study, the production is made faster and with higher quality, and employees are provided with a safer environment. In addition, thanks to the developed HMI interface, Mill machines are able to control and monitor malfunctions and safety situations without the need for additional maintenance personnel.

Rolling resistance prediction of off-road tire using advanced simulation and analytical techniques

This paper focuses on developing a relationship between the rolling resistance coefficient of an off-road truck tire running over different terrains and at various operating conditions. The various operating conditions include tire speed, vertical load, and inflation pressure. The different terrains include dry and moist sand, flooded surface, snow, dense sand, clayey soil, and sandy loam with moisture. The off-road truck tire size 315/80R22.5 is modeled and validated using the finite element analysis technique, while the terrains are modeled and calibrated using smoothed-particle hydrodynamics technique. Artificial neural network and genetic algorithm (GA) are then used to develop a relationship between the rolling resistance coefficient and the terrains and operating conditions. The results of both algorithms are compared to the simulation results in terms of R-square goodness of fit and the mean squared error. Finally, a numerical equation is presented that determines the rolling resistance coefficient as a function of the terrains parameters and the operating conditions. It was found that both techniques provide a suitable solution, however, the GA provides an explicit equation.

Effect of truck speed on the response of flexible pavement systems to traffic loading

ABSTRACT The road network in South Africa, particularly in urban areas, is experiencing a steady increase in traffic volumes and congestion. Speed has a significant effect on the response of flexible pavement systems to traffic loading. Truck tyre loads are more often analysed as a static load in order to simplify the computations, although in reality the pavement system is subjected to a dynamic load. This paper investigates the influence of truck speed on flexible pavement system response to moving traffic loading. A truck with standard axle loads was used to conduct runs at controlled speeds and wander over a full-scale instrumented pavement test sections on road R104 east of Pretoria. The findings of this research indicate that pavement deflections increase exponentially as the truck speeds reduce to speeds below 30 km/h. Furthermore, deflections decrease marginally as the truck speeds increase to speeds greater than 40 km/h. Different flexible pavement systems present different exponential factors that reflect differences in sensitivity of the pavement systems to changes in truck speed. It is thus essential to introduce adjustment factors to deflection measurements done at different truck speeds on different pavement systems in order to compare such deflection data.

Dynamic pyrolysis behaviors, products, and mechanisms of waste rubber and polyurethane bicycle tires

Given their non-biodegradable, space-consuming, and environmentally more benign nature, waste bicycle tires may be pyrolyzed for cleaner energies relative to the waste truck, car, and motorcycle tires. This study combined thermogravimetry (TG), TG-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (TG-FTIR), and pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) analyses to dynamically characterize the pyrolysis behavior, gaseous products, and reaction mechanisms of both waste rubber (RT) and polyurethane tires (PUT) of bicycles. The main devolatilization process included the decompositions of the natural, styrene-butadiene, and butadiene rubbers for RT and of urethane groups in the hard segments, polyols in the soft segments, and regenerated isocyanates for PUT. The main TG-FTIR-detected functional groups included C-H, C=C, C=O, and C-O for both waste tires, and also, N-H and C-O-C for the PUT pyrolysis. The main Py-GC/MS-detected pyrolysis products in the decreasing order were isoprene and D-limonene for RT and 4, 4′-diaminodiphenylmethane and 2-hexene for PUT. The kinetic, thermodynamic, and comprehensive pyrolysis index data verified the easier decomposition of PUT than RT. The pyrolysis mechanism models for three sub-stages of the main devolatilization process were best described by two-dimensional diffusion and two second-order models for RT, and the three consecutive reaction-order (three-halves order, first-order, and second-order) models for PUT.

A novel evaluation on rolling resistance characteristics of truck tire through the simplified experimental modal analysis

A novel evaluation method for the rolling resistance characteristics of truck tire is proposed, in which a simplified modal experiment is suggested through a single-point vibration sampling from the tire surface with a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) piezoelectric film. Three truck tires are utilized in the modal experiments, and the half-power bandwidth method is employed to identify the damping characteristics of the three tires. The damping characteristics of the tires are ranked by their values. These values are compared with their corresponding rolling resistance coefficients to manifest their correlative relationship. The experimental results, which are obtained from the modal experiment and the rolling resistance test, indicate that the modal parameters and the half-power bandwidth of the tire are exactly correlated to the rolling resistance coefficients. Furthermore, the damping ratios of the tires are correlated well with the rolling resistance coefficients among the tires. Overall, the proposed evaluation method could effectively evaluate the rolling resistance characteristics of the tire, which enable it to be a simple and economical alternative over the conventional tire rolling resistance experiments.

Further insight into some properties of pyrolytic carbon black obtained from scrap truck tires

The virgin CBp produced from scrap truck tires pyrolysis was analyzed both under N2 and under air flow with thermogravimetric analysis coupled with differential thermal analysis (TGA-DTA). Complementary information was derived from the two analysis. The rubber pyrolytic residues present on virgin CBp are better determined quantitatively by TGA-DTA under N2 flow. On the other hand, for the quantification of pure CBp and moreover of the ashes, the TGA-DTA under air flow is a necessary approach. It was also found that the rubber pyrolytic residues coating the virgin CBp surface can be determined quantitatively by a DSC scan under O2 flow up to 450 °C integrating the exothermal peak at about 340 °C and using as reference the thermo-oxidative enthalpy measured on a reference sample of natural rubber or selected model compounds. It is shown that the light pyrolysis process to clean CBp from the rubber pyrolytic deposits is completely satisfactory when conducted in a DSC scan under oxygen flow rather than under nitrogen flow.

The impact of broken rock angle of repose on truck and shovel capacity and tire life

ABSTRACT This article outlines a closed-form solution to calculate truck body volumetric capacity. This solution also provides a means of evaluating broken rock density and swell factor, which may be further extended to determine shovel dipper and excavator bucket fill factor. The key to the analysis is an evaluation of the broken rock angle of repose. The analysis procedure defined in this article alleviates the need for using assumed values in operational planning. Further, the volumetric capacity and broken rock angle of repose and density may then be used to evaluate the load distribution within a truck body. This is critical to understanding the impact on tire loading and performance, which may be evaluated and compared to the tire manufacturer recommended tonne-kilometer-per-hour limit. The results of the analysis proposed here indicate that for the truck body designs investigated, the SAE International body design standard angle of repose assumption of 26.6° (2:1 slope) is much lower than most materials hauled (> 33°). Also, the broken rock density assumption in the same SAE International body design standard at 2.0 t/m3 is often too high, and does not permit the target load distribution of 1/3:2/3 front:rear axle to be achieved, effectively placing greater load on the front tires than the rear tires, adversely affecting front tire performance.

Bias Truck Tire Deformation Analysis with Finite Element Modeling

This paper presents a method for modeling of pneumatic bias tire axisymmetric deformation. A previously developed model of all-steel radial tire was expanded to include the non-linear stress–strain relationship for textile cord and its thermal shrinkage. Variable cord density and cord angle in the cord-rubber bias tire composite are the major challenges in pneumatic tire modeling. The variabilities result from the tire formation process, and they were taken into account in the model. Mechanical properties of the composite were described using a technique of orthotropic reinforcement overlaying onto isotropic rubber elements, treated as a hyperelastic incompressible material. Due to large displacements, the non-linear problem was solved using total Lagrangian formulation. The model uses MSC.Marc code with implemented user subroutines, allowing for the description of the tire specific properties. The efficiency of the model was verified in the simulation of mounting and inflation of an actual bias truck tire. The shrinkage negligence effect on cord forces and on displacements was examined. A method of investigating the influence of variation of cord angle in green body plies on tire apparent lateral stiffness was proposed. The created model is stabile, ensuring convergent solutions even with large deformations. Inflated tire sizes predicted by the model are consistent with the actual tire sizes. The distinguishing feature of the developed model from other ones is the exact determination of the cord angles in a vulcanized tire and the possibility of simulation with the tire mounting on the rim and with cord thermal shrinkage taken into account. The model may be an effective tool in bias tire design.

Development and validation of off-road tire-gravelly soil interaction using advanced computational techniques

This paper presents a novel modelling technique to compute the interaction between an 8x4 off-road truck and gravelly soil (sand with gravel soil). The off-road truck tire size 315/80R22.5 is modelled using the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) technique and validated using manufacturer-provided data in static and dynamic responses. The gravelly soil is modelled using Smoothed-Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) technique and calibrated against physical measurements using pressure-sinkage and direct shear-strength tests. The tire-gravelly soil interaction is captured using the node symmetric node to segment with edge treatment algorithm deployed for interaction between FEA and SPH elements. The model setup consists of four tires presenting the four axles of the truck, the first tire is a free-rolling steering tire, the second and third tires are driven tires and the fourth tire is a free-rolling push tire. The truck tires-gravelly soil interaction is computed and validated against physical measurements performed in Göteborg, Sweden. The effect of gravelly soil compaction and truck loading on the tire performance is discussed and investigated.

Modelling tire-moist terrain interaction using advanced computational techniques

This paper focuses on predicting and analyzing the tire-moist terrain interaction. The moist terrain (sand) is modelled using Smoothed-Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) technique. The SPH basic interpolation technique is described, and the necessary interpolation equations are implemented. The soil is modelled using the hydrodynamic elastic-plastic material, while the water is modelled using Murnaghan equation of state. The numerical interaction between both materials is defined using Darcy’s law. The soil moisturizing technique consists of layering water particles on top of sand particles and pressurizing the water into the sand. The moisturizing technique is examined using the direct shear-strength test, and validated against physical measurement carried out in a laboratory under similar soil conditions and bulk density. Finally, the results and the effect of moisture content on tire-moist terrain interaction are discussed and investigated using a previously modelled and validated off-road truck tire size 315/80R22.5.