Truck Tire Research Articles

Analysis of Tire-Road Interaction: A Literature Review

This paper presents a comprehensive literature review of the most popular and recent work on passenger and truck tires. Previous papers discuss a huge amount of work on the modeling of passenger car tires using finite element analysis. In addition, recent works on tire–road interaction and the validation of tires using experimental measurements have been described. Moreover, the history of the tire-road contact algorithms is explained. In addition, friction modeling that is implemented in tire–road interaction applications are discussed. Also, a summary of current state-of-the-art research work definitions and requirements of the tread rubber compound are covered from previous studies using various literature reviews and hyper-viscoelastic material models that are implemented for the tread top and the tread base rubber compound. Furthermore, the effect of tire temperature from previous works is presented here. Finally, this literature review also highlights the shortcomings of recent research work and describes the areas lacking in the literature.

Transformation of truck tire rubber waste into thermoplastic vulcanizates: influence of vulcanization systems and compatibilizers in copolyester blends

Transformation of truck tire rubber waste into thermoplastic vulcanizates: influence of vulcanization systems and compatibilizers in copolyester blends

Vibroacoustic simulation for truck tire tread noise prediction

In the last years, the introduction to the market of electric vehicles and a new labeling system introduced by the European Commission raised a strong interest in the noise produced by the tire-road interaction. The reduction of noise emissions became a strong challenge for the tire manufacturers that are constantly in need of developing new simulation tools capable of predicting the noise emitted by a tire. In this paper, the application of a simulation methodology capable of predicting the noise performance of a tire is shown and validated by means of experimental data. The experimental activities consisted of the acquisitions of noise produced by three truck tires made up of a particular tread pattern in which a single geometric feature is analyzed in each configuration, in a near field indoor condition. The simulation process aims to faithfully reproduce the procedure of the experimental test and involves the use of non-linear explicit finite element analysis followed by a vibroacoustic simulation to account for the radiated noise by structural vibrations and fluid-pumping.

Measurement of tyre-based microplastics using traditional and quantum cascade laser-based infrared spectrometry

BackgroundDespite the potential environmental impact of TWPs (tyre wear particles), there is a lack of reliable analytical methodologies suitable for their routineidentification and characterization. The number of papers dealing with this topic is, so far, very reduced and, therefore, there is a need for addressing it, mostly because traditional transmittance-based IR techniques are suboptimal due to scattering caused by black carbon in tyres. ResultsThis study aims to evaluate the most appropriate infrared (IR) spectrometric technique for monitoring TWPs. Macro attenuated total reflectance (ATR), reflectance microscopy, and quantum cascade laser-based micro transflectance (QCL-LDIR) were employed to analyse samples from used car and truck tyres in two sample configurations: small tyre fragments (∼1 cm2) and TWPs (< 1 mm). ATR yielded well-defined spectra with good signal-to-noise ratios, allowing for a straightforward interpretation of the major functional moieties. Despite reflectance measurements on tyre fragments provided good results, those on TWPs offered limited information due to noise and scattering. Transflectance offered clear peaks and enhanced resolution in the fingerprint region –compared to the other techniques-, much faster analysis times and the ability to effectively measure particles down to 20–10 µm, thus, emerging as the most effective technique for TWPs analysis. However, spectral interpretation is not immediate. Further, a proof-of-concept study was done to evaluate whether the analytical techniques contain information to differentiate types of tyres. An unsupervised pattern recognition and a supervised classification technique (principal components analysis and classification trees, CART) were used, which were able to differentiate among the tyres, notably the truck tyre from the cars tyres. SignificanceThe study presents first time the use of micro transflectance IR to study tyre particles down to 20 µm. Traditional total attenuated reflectance is demonstrated as a suitable way to analyse bigger microplastics. These two options open pathways to monitor this important emerging contaminant in environmental matrices

Oxygen concentration regulated the efficient liquefaction of vulcanized natural rubber

Oxidative liquefaction represents a promising avenue for the homogeneous and high-value utilization of waste tire rubber. Given that truck tires predominantly comprise natural rubber (NR), this study investigated the efficient liquefaction of vulcanized NR regulated by oxygen concentration. Remarkably, the liquefaction of vulcanized NR was realized with an oxygen concentration of 75 % at 200 °C within 3 min. FTIR spectroscopy showed that carbonyl, ether and sulphoxide groups were produced during the liquification of NR vulcanizates. Oxygen concentration significantly affected the oxidative efficiency of both the main chains and crosslinks, with a more pronounced effect observed on the main chains. Nevertheless, the similar molecular weights and polydispersity indices across various degraded products suggested a selective oxidative cleavage of the NR backbone. Furthermore, online ATR-FTIR was used to monitor the dynamic changes of NR's molecular structure to elucidate the oxidative degradation mechanism. The oxidative cleavage of NR main chain primarily occurred at the C-C bonds connected with allyl groups, producing oxidized products enriched with conjugated carbonyl groups. Alternatively, the main chain scission may also occur due to the electronic rearrangement effect of the C=C bond and produce saturated carbonyl groups. Oxygen concentration modulated the degradation efficiency of vulcanized NR, which provided an efficient strategy for the upcycling of NR-based waste tires.

Pass-by Noise Analysis of Heavy Duty Trucks

As part of the NCHRP Project 25-45, pass-by levels were measured for 1,289 heavy duty trucks operating on 20 sites including multi-lane highways and more rural two-lane roadways. These sites included uphill, downhill, level sites and accelerating and cruising conditions at speeds from below 45 mph to 70 mph as well as nine different pavement types. This research was designed to develop a more comprehensive understanding of truck noise emissions and noise sources. In this paper, the frequency spectra for these pass-bys are considered from 25 to 10,000 Hz under the measurement conditions specified in the AASHTO TP 389-20 procedure for statistical isolated pass-bys. These data are enhanced by results from the 2009 NCHRP Report 635 entitled Acoustic Beamforming: Mapping Sources of Truck Noise and from Caltrans research on truck tire noise. The findings of these various studies are presented in order to develop a more comprehensive description of heavy-duty truck noise emissions.

Assessment of mechanical performance of electrically conductive asphalt pavements using accelerated pavement testing

ABSTRACT Electrically Conductive Asphalt (ECA) pavements are a promising technology for preventing snow and ice accumulation on roadways. This study assesses the mechanical performance of ECA pavements using Accelerated Pavement Testing (APT). Three pavement test strips were constructed in New Jersey: a traditional asphalt layer as test strip-I, an ECA mastic prepared using a combination of asphalt binder and conductive fibres (strip-II), and an ECA-HPTO (high performance thin overlay mixture) layer containing graphite and carbon fibres (strip-III). Each test strip was instrumented with asphalt strain gauges (ASGs), pressure cells, and thermocouples to evaluate the structural responses. A Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) was used to apply 300,000 passes on each test strip using a 40-kN truck tire. The structural integrity of the test strips was evaluated by conducting Heavy Weight Deflectometer (HWD) testing before and after HVS loading. Data from the ASGs revealed that strip III exhibited the highest cracking resistance (nearly 2 times less tensile strain). The rut depths in all test strips were negligible (less than 2 mm). ECA mastic and steel electrodes in the ECA layer impact the structural integrity of test strips, with variations in HWD deflection behaviour indicating the role of electrode spacing in maintaining pavement stability.

Flash Pyrolysis of Waste Tires in an Entrained Flow Reactor-An Experimental Study.

In this study, a flash pyrolysis process is developed using an entrained flow reactor for recycling of waste tires. The flash pyrolysis system is tested for process stability and reproducibility of the products under similar operating conditions when operated continuously. The study is performed with two different feedstock materials, i.e., passenger car (PCT) and truck tire (TT) granulates, to understand the influence of feedstock on the yield and properties of the pyrolysis products. The different pyrolytic products i.e., pyrolytic carbon black (pCB), oil, and pyro-gas, are analyzed, and their key properties are discussed. The potential applications for the obtained pyrolytic products are discussed. Finally, a mass and energy balance analysis has been performed for the developed pyrolysis process. The study provides insight into the governing mechanisms of the flash pyrolysis process for waste tires, which is useful to optimize the process depending on the desired applications for the pyrolysis products, and also to scale up the pyrolysis process.

Quantification of tire wear particles in road dust based on synthetic/natural rubber ratio using pyrolysis-gas chromatography–mass spectrometry across diverse tire types

Increase in road traffic leads to increased concentrations of tire-wear particles (TWPs), a prominent source of microplastics from vehicles, in road dust. These particles can re-enter the atmosphere or move into aquatic ecosystems via runoff, impacting the environment. Consequently, accurately assessing and managing TWP levels in road dust is crucial. However, the ISO method (ISO/TS 20593 and 21396) uses a constant ratio of styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) to natural rubber (NR) for all tires, disregarding the variability in tire composition across different types and brands. Our study found substantial SBR content (15.7 %) in heavyweight truck tires, traditionally believed to be predominantly NR. We evaluated the SBR/NR content in 15 tire types and proposed a method to more accurately evaluate TWP concentrations in road dust from five different locations. Our findings suggest that the conventional ISO method may underestimate the concentrations of TWP due to its reliance on a static ratio of SBR/NR. This study underscores the necessity for a more flexible approach that can adapt to the variability in SBR and NR content across different tire types. By delineating the limitations inherent in current assessment methods, our research contributes to a more adaptable understanding of TWP concentrations in road dust. This advancement prompts the development of a revised methodology that more accurately reflects the diverse compositions of tire rubber in environmental samples.

Workload analysis using energy expenditure and the work posture evaluation approach with brief method at PT XYZ

Abstract PT XYZ is a company operating in the tire retreading sector on JL. Medan-Banda Aceh, Cot Seurani Village, Muara Batu District, Aceh Utara. Retreading truck tires is carried out through several processes such as inspection, grating, repairing, gluing tire, installing tire treads, installing wheels and rings, cooking tires and finishing. The vulcanization process which is carried out manually and repeatedly makes workers easily fatigued, making them vulnerable to injury and the risk of Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs). This research aims to calculate the workload of PT XYZ workers. PT XYZ to determine the level of worker fatigue using the Energy Expenditure approach and assessing worker work posture using the BRIEF method to assess work postures that cause complaints of pain in workers’ body parts. Researchers measured the resting pulse and working pulse of 8 workers, then classified the Cardiovascular Load (%CVL) and Energy Expenditure workload levels of the workers and assessed work posture using the BRIEF worksheet. The results of calculating the worker’s workload obtained an average %CVL value of 57.92%, the average result of the worker’s Energy Expenditure was 6,8048 Kcal/8 hours with very heavy work criteria. The average BRIEF work posture value is 3.28 in the high risk category. The suggestions given regarding the problem of workers who easily experience fatigue, high workloads and unergonomic work postures are to increase the number of workers, add benchrest jacks at each work station, add a table with wheels and rings and add chairs for finishing workers, lighten the work and reduce excessive bending activities for tire retreading workers.

Sensitivity analysis of truck tire tread material properties for on-road applications

This research delves into the sensitivity analysis of a truck tire rubber compound concerning its impact on tire–road interaction characteristics. Initially, the study employs finite element analysis to model a 315/80R22.5 truck tire, which is subsequently validated through static and dynamic response assessments via various simulation tests. Following validation, the established tire model is utilized to conduct a sensitivity analysis of the tire rubber compound specifically applied on the tread. This analysis encompasses several material definitions, including Mooney–Rivlin, visco-Mooney–Rivlin, linear viscoelastic, and nonlinear viscoelastic materials. By exploring the effects of these material models, the research scrutinizes their influence on tire–road interaction characteristics across diverse operating conditions. The tire–road interaction characteristics include the rolling resistance coefficient, and the cornering force at operating conditions including the longitudinal speed, vertical load, and slip angle. This comprehensive investigation offers insights into the intricate relationship between tire composition and performance, thereby enhancing our understanding of tire behavior and informing potential advancements in tire technology.

Sustainable solutions for railway using recycled rubber

This paper introduces four innovative applications of waste rubber from scrapped tyres or conveyor belts in railway tracks. They include (a) a synthetic energy-absorbing layer of coalwash, steel furnace slag and rubber crumbs (SFS + CW + RC) for railway subballast, (b) a rubber inter-mixed ballast system (RIBS), (c) energy-absorbing rubber geogrids, and (d) a hybrid track incorporating tyre cells and elements of off-the-road truck tyres. Comprehensive laboratory and field tests have been conducted to investigate the geotechnical properties of these applications. Specifically, an empirical model was developed to predict the permanent deformation response of SFS + CW + RC mixtures that incorporate the effect of granular rubber and axial loads based on cyclic triaxial tests. Large-scale triaxial tests and field trials proved that RIBS exhibited improved energy-absorbing properties, sufficient shear strength and the promising ability to mitigate ballast breakage and stress distribution. A rubber geogrid with an optimal rib thickness of 10.6 mm was selected based on drop-hammer impact tests. The performance of the hybrid track was investigated using the National Testing Facility for High-speed Rail (NTFHR), from which it was found that the reinforced track had significantly less settlement, lateral deformation and ballast breakage than the traditional track.

Lower-body muscular power predicts performance on urban combat simulation.

Military operations in urban environments requires faster movements and therefore may place greater demands on soldier strength and anaerobic ability. The aim was to study how physical fitness and body composition are associated with occupational test for urban combat soldiers before and after a 5-day military field exercise (MFE). Twenty-six conscripts (age = 20±1 yrs.) volunteered, of which thirteen completed the study. Occupational performance was determined by using the newly developed Urban Combat Simulation test (UCS); which included 50-m sprinting, moving a truck tire (56 kg) 2 meters with a sledgehammer, a 12-m kettlebell carry (2×20 kg) up the stairs with a 3-m ascent, 4-time sandbag lifts (20 kg) with obstacle crossing, and a 20-m mannequin (85 kg) drag. Aerobic and muscle fitness, as well as anaerobic capacity were measured, and, body composition was assessed with multifrequency bioimpedance analysis. The UCS performance correlated significantly with standing long jump performance, as well as lower and upper body maximal strength before (r = -0.56 to -0.66) and after (r = -0.59 to -0.68) MFE, and, with body mass and FFM before (r = -0.81 to -0.83) and after (r = -0.86 to -0.91) MFE. In the regression analyses, fat free mass (R2 = 0.50, p = 0.01) and counter movement jump in combat load (R2 = 0.46, p = 0.009) most strongly explained the UCS performance. This study demonstrated that muscle mass and lower body explosive force production together with maximal strength are key fitness components related to typical urban combat soldiers' military tasks. Physical training developing these components are recommended.

Health Risk Assessment from Exposure to Ambient Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) at a Truck Tire Factory in the Yangtze River Delta, China

Occupational health risk assessments of exposure to VOCs still need to be extensively studied to improve the safety standards in the industry. Based on the monitoring of organic pollutants at various workstations in a truck tire factory in Jiangsu Province, both semi-quantitative and quantitative health risk assessment methods were employed to assess health risk levels. The findings indicated that VOCs were categorized into five classes, which included alkanes, aromatics, halocarbons, carbon disulfide, and oxygenated volatile organic compounds (OVOCs). The highest concentration of total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs) was found in shaping workshop; alkanes were the most abundant class (74.2%), followed by aromatics (24.02%) and OVOCs (1.96%). Although the results of the semi-quantitative risk assessment showed that most of the organic compounds had low R values, various kinds of VOCs were detected; particularly, many harmful organic compounds (such as toluene, ethyl benzene) were detected in all the sampling sites. The quantitative risk in the calendering and vulcanizing workshop exceeded the acceptable level; both the carcinogenic risk of ethylbenzene in the tire-strip storage room, and trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene in the calendering workshop were unacceptable. Thus, the calendering and vulcanizing processes in rubber tire manufacturing should be priority-controlled processes.

Analysis of Off-Road Tire Cornering Characteristics by Using Advanced Analytical Techniques

ABSTRACT This paper focuses on analysis of the cornering characteristics of an off-road truck tire running under several operating conditions over different soils. The finite element analysis (FEA) method is used to model the Goodyear RHD 315/80R22.5 truck tire, and the smoothed-particle hydrodynamics (SPH) method is used to model the soil. The goal of this research is to provide a virtual testing environment in Pam-Crash software as an alternative to actual tests for FEA and SPH analyses of rolling tire interactions on deformable terrains. The study on the effects of different operating parameters on the cornering performance combined with the sensitivity study can be of interest to tire engineers or vehicle engineers because they provide insight into the design and real-time behavior of a vehicle. Tire and soil models are validated using experimental data and published measurements, showing good agreement. The tire–soil interaction is investigated under different tire conditions, such as longitudinal speed, inflation pressure, vertical load, and slip angle, and under various soil characteristics, such as cohesion, internal friction angle, and rut depth. Cornering force, self-aligning moment, and overturning moment are studied as the fundamental cornering characteristics that affect truck lateral stability and control. Owing to the excessive computational demands posed by the FEA-SPH tire–soil models, we propose unique mathematical relationships for estimating the cornering characteristics of free-rolling as well as driven truck tires in an efficient manner. The genetic algorithm (GA) technique is used to develop relationships between the cornering parameters and operating conditions. We conclude that the identified mathematical relationships could provide very good estimations of the cornering characteristics under a broad range of operating conditions and soils. The GA equations will ultimately be implemented into a full vehicle model to evaluate the full vehicle performance.

Novel Distance-Based Molecular Descriptors for Styrene Butadiene Rubber Structures

Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is a general-purpose rubber produced from a copolymer of styrene and butadiene. It is used largely in automobile and truck tires. In general, it is considered to be an abrasion-resistant replacement for natural rubber. In this article, we compute a set of recently introduced distance-based topological descriptors namely, Zagreb connection indices and reformulated Zagreb connection indices for the SBR structures. Zagreb indices and Reformulated Zagreb indices were applied to forecast numerous molecular properties through QSAR studies of boiling point, Molar volume and bioactivity. These indices offer a quick and effective measure of molecular complexity and features of their composition resulting in approximate molecular behavior.

Enhancing the tire performances of truck tire tread based on rubber compounds containing biobased processing oil by adjusting sulfur contents

The mechanical properties of the rubber compounds such as modulus and tensile strength are very important to rubber products especially for tire applications. However, the presence of palm oil (PO) as a biobased processing oil in eco-friendly truck tire tread compounds encounters the low mechanical properties because PO molecules can consume sulfur as a curing agent. Therefore, this study focuses on incorporation of sulfur in varying contents on the properties of rubber compounds. The PO-added natural rubber compounds with different sulfur contents of 2.50, 2.75, and 3.00 parts per hundred rubber (phr) were prepared by taking the use of distillated aromatic extract (DAE) in natural rubber compound with 2.50 phr sulfur as a reference. The levels of crosslinking of the PO-added natural rubber compounds increased as the sulfur content increased, resulting in improvement in mechanical properties. Results showed that an additional incorporation of 0.25 phr sulfur content led to superior mechanical properties. Furthermore, PO improved the abrasion resistance by 38%, reduced heat buildup by 17%, and lowered tan δ at 60°C by 21%, when compared to the compound as a reference. Based on the results, the additional incorporation of sulfur not only improved the mechanical properties, but also enhanced tire performances especially low rolling resistance as reflected by energy-saving tires. Thus, PO can be an alternative to DAE in the natural rubber compounds for the application of truck tire treads when the additional incorporation of sulfur was applied.

Modelling of Truck Tire–Rim Slip on Sandy Loam Using Advanced Computational Techniques

Vehicles often experience low tire pressures and high torques in off-road operations, making tire–rim slip likely. Tire–rim slip is undesirable relative rotation between the tire and rim, which, in this study, is measured by the relative tire–rim slip rate. There is little research on the effect of different terrains on tire–rim slip despite its significance for off-road driving; therefore, this topic was explored through Finite Element Analysis (FEA) simulations. An upland sandy loam soil was modelled and calibrated using Smoothed-Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH), and then a Regional Haul Drive (RHD) truck tire was simulated driving over this terrain, with a drawbar load added to increase drive torque. To examine their effects, five parameters were changed: tire–rim friction coefficient, longitudinal wheel speed, drawbar load, vertical load, and inflation pressure. The simulations showed that increasing the tire–rim friction coefficient and the inflation pressure decreased the tire–rim slip while increasing the vertical and drawbar loads increased the tire–rim slip. Varying the longitudinal wheel speed had no significant effect. Tire–rim slip was more likely to occur on the soil because it happened at lower drawbar loads on the soil than on the hard surface. These research results increased knowledge of tire–rim slip mechanics and provided a foundation for exploring tire–rim slip on other terrains, such as clays or sands.

Importance of the Relationship Between VMA and Permeability on the Durability Properties by using Crumb Rubber with Different Percentage Portions

For the past ten years, engineers have been deeply researching the permeability of asphalt concrete. High-air voids have generally been the main indicator of permeable hot asphalt concrete in the work that has been done. The prediction of the field permeability values is inconsistent with that indicated in the current published literature. Furthermore, the precise correlations between the various components influencing the field permeability are unclear and complex. One of our objectives of this research work is to present the investigations performed using the model-ling of Hot Mix Asphalt's (HMA's) field permeability using crumb rubber (CR). The primary benefit of using crumb rubber in asphalt mixture is to produce pavement that could be friendly and environmentally acceptable from a duration usable point of view. Other benefits of this procedure are to decrease the friction phenomena on pavement surfaces and improve the mechanical and long-term qualities of the asphalt mixture. This study's findings are presented to explore the benefits of employing crumb rubber to minimize excessive water infiltration and optimize field permeability. This paper offers a significant and straightforward method for comprehending the variables influencing permeability. Asphalt was modified using a fine crumb rubber shred (2.36 - 0.85 mm) that was produced by grinding used truck tires at room temperature. Using the dry process method, the fine crumb rubber with varying contents (2.5%, 4.5%, and 6.5%) was added to the mixture. Hot Mix Asphalt's (HMA) field permeability must be regulated to avoid excessive water infiltration, which can cause an early failure of asphalt pavements.

Influence of sand moisture content on mixed service truck tire performance using advanced hybrid techniques

This paper focuses on investigating the effect of sand moisture content on the performance of a Mixed Service Drive (MSD) truck tire of size 315/80R22.5. The truck tire is modeled using multiple layers and materials within a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) environment. Moist sand is modeled using the Smoothed-Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) technique. Initially, dry sand is modeled using a hydrodynamic elastic-plastic material, while water is modeled using the Murnaghan equation of state. The numerical interaction between the sand and water is identified using Darcy’s law. The moisture content of the sand is then calibrated using direct shear-strength tests and validated against physical measurements conducted in a laboratory under similar sand conditions. The tire-sand interaction is defined using a hybrid FEA-SPH interaction model, and a non-symmetric node-to-segment contact with edge treatment contact algorithm. The tire tractive performance including tractive effort, motion resistance coefficient, and tire sinkage was examined under various operating conditions, including different sand moisture content levels and tire longitudinal speeds.