Triplet Excited Ketones Research Articles

N-Containing Heterocycles on Demand by Merging Ni Catalysis and Photoredox PCET

Nitrogen-containing heterocycles are among the most ubiquitous motifs in pharmaceuticals. Therefore, the design of mild, practical, and modular protocols for their synthesis is still in high demand. In this issue of Chem, Molander and co-workers report the merger of visible-light photoredox proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) with nickel catalysis as a vehicle for rapidly accessing privileged five-membered heterocyclic cores from simple precursors.

Sp3 C-H Arylation and Alkylation Enabled by the Synergy of Triplet Excited Ketones and Nickel Catalysts.

Triplet ketone sensitizers are of central importance within the realm of photochemical transformations. Although the radical-type character of triplet excited states of diaryl ketones suggests the viability for triggering hydrogen-atom transfer (HAT) and single-electron transfer (SET) processes, among others, their use as multifaceted catalysts in C-C bond-formation via sp3 C-H functionalization of alkane feedstocks still remains rather unexplored. Herein, we unlock a modular photochemical platform for forging C( sp3)-C( sp2) and C( sp3)-C( sp3) linkages from abundant alkane sp3 C-H bonds as functional handles using the synergy between nickel catalysts and simple, cheap and modular diaryl ketones. This method is distinguished by its wide scope that is obtained from cheap catalysts and starting precursors, thus complementing existing inner-sphere C-H functionalization protocols or recent photoredox scenarios based on iridium polypyridyl complexes. Additionally, such a platform provides a new strategy for streamlining the synthesis of complex molecules with high levels of predictable site-selectivity and preparative utility. Mechanistic experiments suggest that sp3 C-H abstraction occurs via HAT from the ketone triplet excited state. We believe this study will contribute to a more systematic utilization of triplet excited ketones as catalysts in metallaphotoredox scenarios.

CIDEP from a Polarized Ketone Triplet State Incarcerated within a Nanocapsule to a Nitroxide in the Bulk Aqueous Solution

Thioxanthone and benzil derivatives were incarcerated into an octa acid nanocapsule. Photoexcitation of these ketones generated electronic triplet excited states, which become efficiently quenched by positively charged nitroxides adsorbed outside on the external surface of the negatively charged nanocapsule. Although the triplet excited ketone and quencher are separated by a molecular wall (nanocapsule), quenching occurs on the nanosecond time scale and generates spin-polarized nitroxides, which were observed by time-resolved EPR spectroscopy. Because opposite signs of spin polarization of nitroxides were observed for thioxanthone and benzil derivatives, it is proposed that the electron spin polarization transfer mechanism of spin-polarized triplet states to nitroxides is the major mechanism of generating nitroxide polarization.

Steric effects on intramolecular reactivity in cyclic dipeptides: Conformational analysis validated by a combined MD/DFT approach

The present Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulation study addresses the geometric requirements of close-contact formation in short peptides. This process, that is probed herein by intramolecular H-atom transfer, initiated by triplet-excited ketones, demands close contact between the H-donating and H-accepting moieties. Thus, any deduction about the compound’s reactivity based just on MD simulations, requires independent verification of the computed conformational preferences. In this study, a procedure was developed using diketopiperazine-linked benzophenone/tyrosine dyads. Specifically, it involves a comparison of the dyads’ experimental 3 J(H α–H β(a/b)) spin–spin coupling constants with the theoretical values obtained by weighting DFT-computed spin–spin coupling constants with the MD-computed probability distributions for the dyads’ configurations.

Competition Between Azido Cleavage and Triplet Nitrene Formation in Azidomethylacetophenones

Photolysis of p- and m-azidomethylacetophenone (1a, 1b) in argon-saturated solutions yields predominantly imine 2a, 2b, whereas irradiation of 1a, 1b in oxygen-saturated solutions results in heterocycles 3a, 3b, aldehydes 4a, 4b and nitriles 5a, 5b. Density functional theory calculations place the energy of the first and second excited state of the triplet ketones (T1K and T2K) in 1a, 1b in close proximity to each other. The triplet transition state for cleaving the C–N bond in 1a, 1b to form azido and benzyl radicals 1aB, 1bB is located only 3 kcal mol–1 (1 kcal = 4.184 kJ) above T1K, indicating that azido cleavage is feasible. The calculations place the energy of the triplet azido group (TA) in 1a, 1b ∼25 kcal mol–1 below T1K; thus, this process is also easily accessible via energy transfer. Further, the transition state barrier for TA to expel N2 and form triplet nitrenes is less than 1 kcal mol–1 above TA in 1a, 1b. Laser flash photolysis of 1a, 1b reveals the formation of the triplet excited ketones of 1a, 1b, which decay to form benzyl radicals 1aB, 1bB and triplet alkylnitrenes. The triplet ketones and the benzyl radicals are quenched with molecular oxygen at rates close to diffusion, whereas the triplet nitrenes react more slowly with oxygen (∼5 × 105 M–1 s–1). We conclude that the triplet alkylnitrenes intercept the benzyl radicals to form 2 in argon-saturated solution, whereas the benzyl radicals are trapped to form 4 in oxygen-saturated solution; thus, the triplet nitrenes react with oxygen to form 3.

Triplet-sensitized photolysis of alkoxycarbonyl azides in solution and matrices

Photolysis of azides 1– 4 in methanol, which have a built-in intramolecular triplet sensitizer, yields mainly carbamates 5– 8. Laser flash photolysis of 1– 4 shows formation of their triplet-excited ketone, which decays by intramolecular energy transfer to form triplet nitrenes 1n– 4n. Irradiating 1– 3 in matrices yields isocyanic acid, whereas photolysis of 4 forms isocyanate 4i. The depletion rate of the azide bands between 2100 and 2200 cm −1 is different than the rate of formation for the isocyanic acid bands at ∼2265 cm −1; thus, the formation of isocyanic acid is a stepwise process. Irradiating 1 in matrices produces an absorption band due to nitrene 1n ( λ max ∼ 343 nm), which is depleted upon further irradiation, whereas the absorption due to 4-acetyl benzaldehyde ( λ max ∼ 280 nm) increases with prolonged irradiation. We propose that formation of isocyanic acid in matrices must come from secondary photolysis of nitrenes 1n– 3n. This mechanism is further supported by calculation, which show that the estimated transition state for 1n– 4n to fall apart to yield alkoxy and cyanato radicals is only ∼34 kcal/mol above the ground state of the triplet nitrenes and thus the cleavage can take place photochemically. Thus, nitrenes 1n– 4n can be formed selectively, but these intermediates are highly photosensitive and undergo secondary photolysis in matrices.

Head‐to‐Tail Interactions in Tyrosine/Benzophenone Dyads in the Ground and the Excited State: NMR and Laser Flash Photolysis Studies

The formation of head-to-tail contacts in de novo synthesized benzophenone/tyrosine dyads, bp logical sum Tyr, was probed in the ground and excited triplet state by NMR techniques and laser flash photolysis, respectively. The high affinity of triplet-excited ketones towards phenols was used to trace the geometric demands for high reactivity in the excited state. A retardation effect on the rates with increasing hydrogen-bond-acceptor ability of the solvent is correlated with ground-state masking of the phenol. In a given solvent the efficiencies of the intramolecular hydrogen-atom-transfer reaction depend strongly on the properties of the linker: rate constants for the intramolecular quenching of the triplet state cover the range of 10(5) to 10(8) s(-1). The observed order of reactivity correlates to a) the probability of close contacts (from molecular-dynamics simulations) and b) the extent of the electronic overlap between the pi systems of the donor and acceptor moieties (from NMR). A broad survey of the NMR spectra in nine different solvents showed that head-to-tail interactions between the aromatic moieties of the bp logical sum Tyr dyads already exist in the ground state. Favourable aromatic-aromatic interactions in the ground state appear to correspond to high excited-state reactivity.

β-Phenyl Quenching of Triplet Excited Ketones: How Critical Is the Geometry for Deactivation?

The phenomenon of beta-phenyl quenching has been examined by laser-flash photolysis in a series of alpha- and/or beta-substituted ketones 4-8 with similar excited-state characteristics. It is found that alpha-substitution markedly increases the triplet lifetimes in contrast to beta-substitution. The force field calculations for the various staggered conformers of ketones 4-6 and 8-syn show that the lowest-energy conformation in all these ketones has the carbonyl group and the beta-phenyl ring gauche to each other. Despite this geometrical requirement, the longer lifetimes observed are interpreted as being due to the influence of the alpha-substituent on the rotational freedom of the planar benzoyl moiety as a whole. The experimental results are suggestive of the attainment of what appears to be a critical geometry for quenching. This scenario may be likened to Norrish type II reactions, where the alpha-substituent has long been known to suppress the elimination pathway and promote Yang cyclization. In addition, we have shown that the diastereomers of alpha,beta-disubstituted ketones exhibit distinct lifetimes.

Photooxidation of Acyclovir with Thermally Generated Triplet Excited Ketones. A Comparison with Type I and II Photosensitizers

The antiviral drug acyclovir (Ac, 1) was treated with triplet excited ketones, which have been generated in thermal decomposition of 3-(hydroxymethyl)-3,4,4-trimethyl-1,2-dioxetane (HTMD), in the dark. Three major oxidation products were detected by means of spectroscopic measurements. The products were (2-hydroxyethoxy) methyl spiroiminodihydantoin (2), (2-hydroxyethoxy) methyl (amino)-2-imino-1,2-dihydroimidazole-5-one (3), and 2,2-diamino-4-[(2-hydroxyethoxy) methyl) amino)-5-[2H]-oxazolone (4). Equal amounts of type I and type II photooxidation products were found, as could be established by comparison with predominant type I (riboflavin) and type II (rose bengal) photosensitizers. The concentration and time profiles for the HTMD-induced oxidation of Ac were also determined. The participation of singlet oxygen in HTMD-induced oxidation was confirmed by the substantial D(2)O effect in the formation of spiroiminodihydantoin (2).

Investigation of Polar and Stereoelectronic Effects on Pure Excited-state Hydrogen Atom Abstractions from Phenols and Alkylbenzenes†

The fluorescence quenching of singlet-excited 2,3-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]oct-2-ene (DBO) by 22 phenols and 12 alkylbenzenes has been investigated. Quenching rate constants in acetonitrile are in the range of 10(8)-10(9) M(-1)s(-1) for phenols and 10(5)-10(6) M(-1)s(-1) for alkylbenzenes. In contrast to the quenching of triplet-excited benzophenone, no exciplexes are involved, so that a pure hydrogen atom transfer is proposed as quenching mechanism. This is supported by (1) pronounced deuterium isotope effects (kH/kD ca 4-6), which were observed for phenols and alkylbenzenes, and (2) a strongly endergonic thermodynamics for charge transfer processes (electron transfer, exciplex formation). In the case of phenols, linear free energy relationships applied, which led to a reaction constant of rho = -0.40, suggesting a lower electrophilicity of singlet-excited DBO than that of triplet-excited ketones and alkoxyl radicals. The reactivity of singlet-excited DBO exposes statistical, steric, polar and stereoelectronic effects on the hydrogen atom abstraction process in the absence of complications because of competitive exciplex formation.

Stereodifferentiation in the formation and decay of the encounter complex in bimolecular electron transfer with photoactivated acceptors

Experimental evidence has been obtained for the involvement of encounter complexes between both enantiomers of a pi,pi* triplet excited ketone and a chiral phenol or indole. Determination of the pre-equilibrium constants (K(EC)) and the intrinsic decay rate constants (kd) indicates a significant stereodifferentiation in both steps of the quenching process.

Geometrical Effects on the Intramolecular Quenching of π,π* Aromatic Ketones by Phenols and Indoles

Laser flash photolysis of a series of bichromophoric compounds 1-12 containing the 2-benzoylthiophene (BT) and phenol (PhOH) or indole (InH) moieties has been used to determine the possible geometrical effects in the intramolecular quenching of triplet excited ketones, resulting in formal hydrogen abstraction. The results are compared with those obtained in the intermolecular process. In both cases, substitution either at the thienyl or the phenyl moiety has a marked influence on the photoreactivity. Time-resolved experiments showed that the rate constants for bimolecular quenching by phenol and indole of 2-benzoylthiophene substituted at the thienyl 5-position were lower than those for BT substituted at the phenyl p-position, which agrees with the higher energy found for the excited triplet state of the latter compounds. However, the rate constant for hydrogen abstraction in the bichromophoric compounds by the pi,pi* triplet state of the derivatives with the spacer linked to the thienyl 5-position are higher than those of their regioisomers. These results indicate a possible geometry-dependence in the intramolecular quenching process. Theoretical DFT studies have been carried out in order to estimate the optimum conformation for hydrogen abstraction in two pairs of phenolic and indolic bichromophoric regioisomers. The energy profile for photoactivation/deactivation of the aromatic ketone and the structures of the triplet states and biradicals involved in the process have been determined. The observed regiodifferentiation in the experimental studies is consistent with a dependence of the rate constant on orbital overlap between the carbonyl oxygen and the X-H bonds.

Stereodifferentiation in the decay of triplets and biradicals involved in intramolecular hydrogen transfer from phenols or indoles to pi,pi aromatic ketones.

Laser flash photolysis studies on (R,S) and (S,S) diastereoisomers of the bichromophoric compounds 1-6 have been used to investigate the possible chiral discrimination in the quenching of triplet excited ketones, resulting in formal hydrogen abstraction. Deuterium isotopic effects show that triplet deactivation in these bichromophores is dominated by hydrogen atom transfer. A remarkable stereodifferentiation is found in the intramolecular quenching of the ketone triplets of 1-3 and 5 by the phenolic or indolic moieties, either in methanol or acetonitrile as solvents. This indicates the existence of specific structural requirements for hydrogen transfer. On the other hand, the lifetimes of the generated biradicals show large solvent dependence; solvation appears to slow their reversion to the starting ketone. The considerable stereodifferentiation observed for the biradical lifetimes suggests that the kinetics of biradical decay is faster when the approach of the two radical termini becomes easier.

Quenching of n,pi*-excited states in the gas phase: variations in absolute reactivity and selectivity.

The quenching of the n,pi*-excited azoalkane 2,3-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]oct-2-ene by 19 heteroatom-containing electron and hydrogen donors, that is, amines, sulfides, ethers, and alcohols, was investigated in the gas phase. Deuterium isotope effects were measured for 9 selectively deuterated derivatives. The data support the involvement of an excited charge-transfer complex, that is, an exciplex, for tertiary amines and sulfides, and a competitive direct hydrogen transfer from the C-H bonds of ethers or from the N-H or O-H bonds of secondary and primary amines or alcohols. The recently observed "inverted" solvent effect for the fluorescence quenching of azoalkanes by amines and sulfides in solution is supported by the observed rate constants in the gas phase, which are substantially larger than those in solution. A more pronounced inverted solvent effect for the weaker electron-donating sulfides and a presumably faster exciplex deactivation result in a switch-over in absolute reactivity relative to tertiary amines in the gas phase. Most importantly, the kinetic data demonstrate that the reactivity of the strongly dipolar O-H and N-H bonds in photoinduced hydrogen abstraction reactions shows a larger decrease upon solvation than that of the less polar C-H bonds. The azoalkane data are compared with previous studies on quenching of n,pi*-triplet-excited ketones in the gas phase.

Unusual temperature dependence in the cis/trans-oxetane formation discloses competitive syn versus anti attack for the Paternò-Büchi reaction of triplet-excited ketones with cis- and trans-cylooctenes. Conformational control of diastereoselectivity in the cyclization and cleavage of preoxetane diradicals.

Toluene-d(8) solutions of cis- and trans-cyclooctene (cis- and trans-1a) as well as (Z)- and (E)-1-methylcyclooctene (cis- and trans-1b) have been irradiated at temperatures between -95 and +110 degrees C in the presence of benzophenone (BP) to afford mixtures of the cis- and trans-configured oxetanes 2a,b and the regioisomeric 2b'. Correspondingly, benzoquinone (BQ) gave with cis- and trans-1a the cycloadducts cis- and trans-3a. The cis/trans diastereomeric ratios of the [2 + 2]-cycloadducts 2 and 3 display a strong temperature dependence; with cis- and trans-1a or cis-1b as starting materials, the diastereoselectivity of the oxetane formation is high at low temperature, under preservation of the initial cyclooctene configuration. With increasing temperature, the cis diastereoselectivity decreases continuously for the cis-cyclooctenes; in the case of the cis-1a, the diastereoselectivity is even switched to trans (cis/trans ca. 20:80) at very high temperatures. For the strained trans-1a, the trans-oxetanes are strongly preferred over the entire temperature range, with only minor leakage (up to 10%) to the cis-oxetanes at very high temperatures. Oxetane formation is accompanied by nonthermal trans-to-cis isomerization of the cyclooctene. The methyl-substituted trans-1b constitutes an exceptional substrate; it displays cis diastereoselectivity in the [2 + 2] photocycloaddition at low temperatures for both regioisomers 2b and 2b', and the trans selectivity increases at moderate temperature (cis/trans = 4:96), to decrease again at high temperature, especially for the minor regioisomer 2b'. This complex temperature behavior of the cis/trans diastereoselectivity may be rationalized in terms of the triplet-diradical mechanism of the Paternò-Büchi reaction. We propose that the cyclooctene may be competitively attacked by the triplet-excited ketone from the higher (syn) or the less (anti) substituted side; such syn and anti trajectories have hitherto not been considered. To account for the unusual temperature behavior in the diastereoselectivity of the present [2 + 2] photocycloaddition, we suggest that temperature-dependent conformational changes of the resulting triplet preoxetane diradicals compete with their cyclization to the cis/trans-oxetane diastereomers and retro cleavage to the cis-cyclooctene.

Structure-dependent reactivity of oxyfunctionalized acetophenones in the photooxidation of DNA: base oxidation and strand breaks through photolytic radical formation (spin trapping, EPR spectroscopy, transient kinetics) versus photosensitization (electron transfer, hydrogen-atom abstraction).

The photooxidative damage of DNA, specifically guanine oxidation and strand-break formation, by sidechain-oxyfunctionalized acetophenones (hydroxy, methoxy, tert-butoxy and acetoxy derivatives), has been examined. The involvement of triplet-excited ketones and their reactivity towards DNA has been determined by time-resolved laser-flash spectroscopy. The generation of carbon-centered radical species upon Norrish-type I cleavage has been assessed by spin-trapping experiments with 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide, coupled with electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. The observed DNA-base oxidation and strand-break formation is discussed in terms of the peroxyl radicals derived from the triplet-excited ketones by alpha cleavage and molecular oxygen trapping, as well as direct interaction of the excited states by electron transfer and hydrogen-atom abstraction. It is concluded that acetophenone derivatives, which produce radicals upon photolysis, in particular the hydroxy (AP-OH) and tert-butoxy (AP-O(t)Bu) derivatives, are more effective in oxidizing DNA.

On the interaction mechanism of radical photoinitiators with monomers

Rate constants of quenching of triplet excited ketones by several monomers were determined through time-resolved laser spectroscopy or culled from the literature. The semi-empirical calculation method PM3 allows the quenching mechanisms to be refined and can be used to predict the reactivity of aromatic ketones toward monomers. It is apparent from both experimental results and theoretical calculations that the rate constant (kq ) measured for the bimolecular quenching between the triplet state of a given aromatic ketone and both electron-rich as well as electron-poor monomers, depends linearly on the free enthalpy of formation of the regioselectively favored 1,4-biradical, which is the primary reaction step of the ketone/monomer interaction. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci A: Polym Chem 38: 1785–1794, 2000

Photoinduced Energy and Electron Transfer between Ketone Triplets and Organic Dyes

Cationic organic dyes (phenosafranine, safranine T (ST+), thiopyronine, and methylene blue) are efficient quenchers of the triplet states of aromatic ketones. The triplets of benzophenone (BP), xanthone, thioxanthone, benzil, and N-methylacridone are quenched by the dyes via energy transfer, generating triplet excited dyes (typically kq = 5.5 × 109 M-1 s-1 for 3BP* + ST+ in acetonitrile solution). Regarding Michler's ketone, p-(dimethylamino)benzophenone, and 3,6-bis(dimethylamino)thioxanthone, the mechanism of triplet quenching is solvent-dependent. Electron transfer occurs in polar solvents like acetonitrile, and energy transfer is the dominant reaction pathway in less polar solvents, such as dichloromethane. Delayed fluorescence of the dye caused by heterotriplet−triplet annihilation involving ketone and dye was detected upon studying the reaction of the dyes with triplet excited ketones (BP, xanthone, thioxanthone, and benzil). By applying two successive laser pulses (λex = 532 and 308 nm, respectively), the rate constant of the reaction 3BP* + 3(ST+)* was determined: kht = 1.1 × 1010 M-1 s-1.

Type I and Type II Photosensitized Oxidative Modification of 2‘-Deoxyguanosine (dGuo) by Triplet-Excited Ketones Generated Thermally from the 1,2-Dioxetane HTMD

The nucleoside 2‘-deoxyguanosine (dGuo) was treated with 3-(hydroxymethyl)-3,4,4-trimethyl-1,2-dioxetane (HTMD), the latter generates efficiently triplet-excited carbonyl products on thermal decomp...

Photooxidation of 8-Oxo-7,8-dihydro-2‘-deoxyguanosine by Thermally Generated Triplet-Excited Ketones from 3-(Hydroxymethyl)-3,4,4-trimethyl-1,2-dioxetane and Comparison with Type I and Type II Photosensitizers

Calf thymus DNA and 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2‘-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodGuo) were photooxidized in the dark by triplet-excited ketones generated in the thermal decomposition of 3-(hydroxymethyl)-3,4,4-trimethyl-1,2-dioxetane (HTMD). The oxidation of DNA led to 8-oxodGuo and the type I photooxidation product 2,2-diamino[2-deoxy-β-d-erythro-pentofuranosyl)-4-amino]-5(2H)-oxazolone (oxazolone). While the yield of oxazolone progressively increased, 8-oxodGuo was substantially consumed in DNA on successive exposure to HTMD. The oxidation of authentic 8-oxodGuo by HTMD and established photosensitizers such as benzophenone (mainly type I) and Rose Bengal (predominantly type II) was studied in detail in regard to the concentration and time dependence and the influence of D2O versus H2O. The singlet-oxygen-derived 4R* and 4S* diastereomers of 4-hydroxy-8-oxo-4,8-dihydro-2‘-deoxyguanosine (4-HO-8-oxodGuo) and oxazolone were the major products. A substantial kinetic D2O effect (ca. 10-fold) in the Rose Bengal-photosensitized degradation of 8-oxodGuo unequivocally established that in this case singlet oxygen (type II photooxidation) is involved. However, the efficient formation of oxazolone by benzophenone as a characteristic type I photooxidant, as well as in the HTMD-mediated oxidation (predominantly type I), and the fact that these processes exhibit a negligible D2O effect provide cogent experimental evidence for an electron or hydrogen atom transfer mechanism (type I photooxidation) in the oxidative degradation of 8-oxodGuo into oxazolone. The unprecedented observation that comparable product ratios of 4-HO-8-oxodGuo and oxazolone were obtained in the 8-oxodGuo oxidations, irrespective of whether Rose Bengal as a typical type II photooxidant or benzophenone as an established type I photooxidant was employed, is presumably due to electron-transfer chemistry of 1O2 with the easily oxidized 8-oxodGuo in view of its low oxidation potential. This nicely accounts for the fact that the primary oxidation product 8-oxodGuo, which serves as important monitor of oxidative genotoxicity, may not accumulate appreciably in the photooxidation of DNA.