Tribal Ethnicity Research Articles (Page 1)

Tobacco use remains a major public health concern, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, which account for 80% of the world's tobacco users. In India, smokeless tobacco (SLT) use is higher among women, likely due to factors such as financial dependence resulting from limited occupational opportunities, peer influence, and gender inequality. Tobacco consumption in any form poses serious health risks to both mothers and their children. This study aims to estimate the prevalence and factors associated with smoking tobacco and SLT among pregnant and breastfeeding mothers from the fifth National Family Health Survey (2019-21) (NFHS-5) in India. After excluding outliers, 722,933 women of reproductive age (24,368 pregnant, 102,080 breastfeeding, and 592,699 non-pregnant/non-breastfeeding mothers) were eligible for this cross-sectional secondary data analysis. Descriptive statistics are presented as means with standard deviations (continuous variables) or frequencies (categorical variables), with a 95% confidence interval as a measure of uncertainty. The magnitude of the influence on the covariates of tobacco consumption was estimated using univariate and multivariate logistic regressions. Approximately 3.2% of mothers reported using tobacco during their current pregnancy or while breastfeeding, with a strong preference for SLT, which was over 13 times more common than smoking tobacco. Significant predictors of SLT consumption included tribal ethnicity [AOR: 2.20 (1.95-2.48)] and early motherhood [AOR: 1.12 (1.08-1.16)]. Notably, mass media awareness campaigns were ineffective in preventing SLT use among mothers [AOR: 1.49 (1.43-1.57)]. A marked difference in prevalence was observed between pregnant (2.48%) and breastfeeding (3.34%) mothers, suggesting a potential postpartum relapse. These findings underscore the potential role that Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) can play during antenatal care (ANC) visits by providing consistent support for tobacco cessation. Tobacco use poses serious health hazards not only to the mother but also to the developing child. Our findings indicate a lack of management and awareness, underscoring the urgent need for reforms in tobacco production and distribution to ensure improved maternal care and child health outcomes.

Abstract Introduction: Risky behavior among adolescents is a major public health problem in India and it affects health both at that time and in later years. Poor mental health is strongly related to other health and development concerns in young people notably lower educational achievements, substance abuse, and violence. The aim of this study is to assess the health risk behaviors of male school-going tribal adolescents from Jharkhand, India. Methodology: The present study is a cross-sectional descriptive study design. Schools were selected from rural areas of Ranchi district, Jharkhand. Sociodemographic data sheet and the Global School-based Student Health Survey were administered. Results: A total of 780 male students participated in the study. In the present study, 3.46% of the respondents have felt lonely always during the past 12 months, and 1.15% of the students have seriously considered attempting suicide. In this survey, the prevalence of current alcohol use among students (i.e., drinking at least one drink containing alcohol on one or more of the past 30 days) was 14.35%. In the school survey, it was found that during the past 30 days, 1.41% of the students have used marijuana (cannabis) 20 or more times. During the past 30 days, 18.46% of the students reported that they smoked cigarettes all 30 days. Conclusion: The finding of the study shows that mental health scenarios and high-risk behaviors are prevalent among adolescents from the tribal community; considering their social, religious, cultural, and economic backgrounds, adequate psychosocial intervention plans can be made for early identification and adequate intervention. This information might help policymakers, health professionals, and researchers to incorporate prevention and treatment strategies to reduce risk behaviors and prevent psychiatric disorders among these adolescents.

Background:Risk and protective factors play crucial roles in shaping problem behavior, substance use, and mental health outcomes among adolescents. The study aims to examine the risk and protective factors and their association with emotional and behavioral problems among school-going tribal adolescents in Meghalaya, India.Methods:This study employed a cross-sectional design, utilizing a simple random sampling method to select schools from the Ri-Bhoi district (Nongpoh town) and East Khasi Hills district (Shillong cantonment area) of Meghalaya. A total of 450 students participated in the survey, out of which 300 students belonged to tribal ethnicity. The study focused on school-going adolescents with tribal ethnicity, aged 13–19 years, encompassing both genders (male and female). Participation in the study required both parental consent and the adolescent’s assent. The Communities That Care Youth Survey (CTC-YS) and the Strength and Difficulty Questionnaires (SDQ), scale were administered.Results:The findings highlighted significant risk factors including laws and norms favorable to drug use, community disorganization, poor family management, and low school commitment. Protective factors such as opportunities for prosocial involvement were evident across all domains. Family conflict, family history of antisocial behavior, and parental overcontrol were significant contributors (P < 0.05) to total difficulty scores. Among individual risk factors, “Interaction with anti-social peers” (P = 0.009) and “Intentions to use substance” (P = 0.021) had significant associations with higher difficulty scores. The overall prevalence of mental health problems, as indicated by the total difficulty score, was 31.3% among school-going tribal adolescents.Conclusion:The high prevalence of mental health problems, especially among tribal adolescents, underscores the urgent need for targeted interventions. By addressing these factors, policymakers and stakeholders can work toward fostering healthier outcomes for tribal adolescents in Meghalaya and similar communities.

The Libyan resistance of the Libyan tribes in the Sirtes area to the Greek and Roman presence through literary sources and archaeological remains..The topic of this research deals with the national resistance movement of the Libyan tribes in the Sirtes area to the Greek and Roman presence through literary sources and archaeological remains. The great powers were the Greeks, the Carthaginians, and then the Romans. The aspirations of these forces to extend their influence and control this region caused these tribes to engage in this conflict to prove their right to their homeland at times and to repel aggression and domination at other times.This conflict reached its climax in the Roman era, when it developed into an armed clash in which Roman consuls were pushed against these tribes to subjugate them and perhaps also to try to change the tribal ethnicity in the region.

Background: Mental health disparities are more pronounced among marginalized and ethnic communities due to a multitude of societal and environmental factors. These include family dynamics, cultural influences, geographic location, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, all of which contribute to increased vulnerability to mental health issues within these populations. Aim: The aim of this study was to examine the occurrence of mental health issues and substance use among adolescents belonging to tribal communities. Methods and Materials: The current research adopts a cross-sectional descriptive study design and was conducted across five Indian states, with a particular focus on the north-eastern region, including Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, and Arunachal Pradesh. The selection of districts and schools was done based on convenience sampling in the initial phase of the study. From each state, two schools were selected where the tribal population was high. In each district, a list of schools (20 schools) was prepared based on census data where the tribal population was high. Following the selection of schools within the district, a randomized sampling approach, employing the lottery method, was utilized to choose 10 schools from the compiled list. Subsequently, a total enumeration method was employed for the selection of school-going adolescents, ensuring the inclusion of all individuals within the chosen schools. A total of 983 adolescents belonging to tribal communities participated in the study after providing both assent and parental consent. A socio-demographic datasheet, strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ), and Brief Screener for Tobacco, Alcohol, and Other Drugs (BSTAD) were administered. Results: In the context of school-going adolescents, Arunachal Pradesh exhibited a higher prevalence of mental health issues, including emotional and behavioral problems, at 41.9%, surpassing the rates observed in Assam (32.8%), Meghalaya (31.4%), Nagaland (26%), and Manipur (14.22%). The finding shows that the use of alcohol was higher in Arunachal Pradesh (29.03%) as compared to other states; 29.44% of students from Nagaland sniffed or huffed, which was the highest among the five states; and 28.04% of students from Meghalaya took illegal drugs like marijuana, cocaine, etc., which was the highest among the five states. Conclusion: Proactive measures are urgently required to tackle the mental health obstacles confronting tribal adolescents. Implementing targeted mental health programs tailored to their specific needs is crucial for ensuring their well-being and fostering resilience within these communities.

This study explores the ethnic origins and identity of the Radagaisus’ army that invaded Italy in the early fifth century. Despite the fact that his people were referred to by the Romans as the Goths, their true identity remains unclear. Analysis of archaeological and historical sources suggests that Radagaisus and his men came from the northeastern part of the Great Danube Plain. Thus, they most probably were part of the Sarmatians and the Victohali tribe. The study also examines how tribal identities were shaped and redefined in the sources in the context of political and cultural changes. This case contributes to the broader discussion of barbarian tribal ethnicity and identity in Late Antiquity.

Social and Cultural Contexts of Alcohol Use: A Case Study of a Female with Alcohol Dependence Syndrome of Tribal Ethnicity

ABSTRACTBackground:Ageing is defined as a process of deterioration in the functional capacity of an individual that results from structural changes, with the advancement of age. Globally the geriatric population has increased from 8% in 2012 to 8.5% in 2015 and expected to rise by 22% in 2050. Hence we planned to study morbidity profiles and predictors of health-seeking behaviour among the elderly population in Ormanjhi, RanchiMethodology:A community based cross sectional study was conducted in Ormanjhi, Ranchi, Jharkhand for a period of six months (March-August 2018). The study was done among 206 geriatric populations fulfilling the eligibility criteria, selected by cluster sampling and those not giving their consent were excluded from the study. Data collected were entered in Microsoft Excel and analysis was done on Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0Results:A total of 206 geriatric populations fulfilling the study criteria, were enrolled during the study. The majority of the age group was found between 60-69 years (71.8%). Around 202 (98.1%) of which resided in rural areas, nearly half 102 (49.5%) depended on pension for livelihood and 108 (52.4%) were illiterate. Two-fifth of the study subjects (40.3%) consulted a government doctor if any health problems occurred followed by 30.5% preferred a private doctor and 20.1% consulted unqualified practitioners. Most of the study participants (64.5%) did not seek medical care due to financial reasons followed by 14.5% considered it a minor illness than 13% complained that health facility far away and 8.1% considered that old age itself as a disease. Non tribal ethnicity, participants who had their own source of income and co-morbidity were significantly associated with health seeking behaviourConclusion:Most participants in this study suffered from morbidities which also affect their quality of life. It was also observed that most of them were not dependent on others for their daily activities. Health seeking behaviour was found to be appropriate in nearly two third (70%) of elderly subjects in Ranchi, Jharkhand.

Background: Cervical cancer has become a vital cause of cancer mortality among women worldwide. It is the fifth most common cancer overall and second most common cancer among women worldwide.&#x0D; Aims and Objectives: To assess the frequency of established risk factors of cervical cancer among study subjects and to find out the association between socio demographic variables and risk factors with results of pap smear test.&#x0D; Materials and Methods: Hospital based cross sectional study was conducted in Pathology department of Rajendra Institute of medical sciences, Ranchi for 3 months (September – November 2017) on total of 106 women who gave consent.&#x0D; Results: All the women (n=106) were married, 68 out of 106 (64.2%) were Hindus, 57 out of 106 (53.8%)were non Tribals 60.4% were from urban area and most of them 62 out of 106 (58.49%) were housewives. Amongst risk factors, 69 out of 106(65.09%) had their first sexual intercourse before 18 years of age, only 11 out of 106 (10.4%) were addicted to smoking and 42 out of 106 (39.62%) had past history of STIs. Educational status and Socio economic status was found to be significantly associated with abnormal pap smear results with p value &lt;0.05.&#x0D; Conclusion: Most of the women were from non tribal ethnicity and urban background and illiterate with the mean age of 37.9± 10.56 years. Educational status and Socio economic status were significantly associated with abnormal Pap results.

The novel coronavirus presentsan unprecedented impact on physical as well as global public mental health. Younger people are vulnerable to negative psychological consequences during the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. This study aimed to identify the prevalence of anxiety, depression, and stress among the younger Nepalese population during the COVID-19 pandemic.Furthermore, it aimed to examine sociodemographic predictors of anxiety, depression, and stress. A quantitative cross-sectional survey was conducted through online platforms. Three hundred-one (301) participants of age group 16- 40 years filled the validated Anxiety, Depression, and Stress Scale (ADSS) form between 5th October 2020 to 5th December 2020.The total prevalence of anxiety, depression, and stress in our study population was 46.5%, 50.6%, and 56.2%, respectively. Anxiety, depression, and stress all were predominant among the age group of 16-24 years, female population, those living in rural areas, and respondents with undergraduate education levels. Moreover, depression was found to be higher among tribal ethnicity, married women, and respondents with the perceived defect. Binary logistic regression analysis showed females (odds ratio (OR)=1.64; 95% CI: 0.99-2.17) and undergraduate educationlevels(OR=4.246; 95% CI: 1.44-12.53) were independently associated with anxiety; tribal ethnicity respondents (OR=2.22; 95% CI: 1.31-3.74) showed higher rate of depression and the age group 16-24 years (OR=0.34; 95% CI: 0.12-0.95) were found to have increased stress level. The Nepalese youth population showed a high prevalence of anxiety, depression, and stress. These findings suggest that psychological support programs are needed urgently to promote the psychological well-being of Nepalese youth. Also, future longitudinal studies should be conducted with an adequate sample size to explore the long-term mental health impact of COVID-19 among the youth population.

Colonial and postcolonial imaginaries of the Andaman Islands have represented the islands as a natural prison, a terra nullius, a site of nationalist martyrdom in the Indian anti-colonial struggle, and a repository of indigenous “exotica.” The islands are both a “melting pot” and a “frontier.” Successive waves of migration since 1858 have created a multiethnic and multilingual mosaic referred to as “Southeast India” and “Mini-India.” Convicts incarcerated by the British were joined by partition refugees from eastern Bengal, Adivasis from Chota Nagpur, and Telugu- and Tamil- speaking migrants from southern India. The 500-odd remaining indigenous people of tribal ethnicity are confined to reserved territories, depend on government support, or refuse contact. Strategically located at the juncture of the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea, the islands play a crucial role in India’s current military expansion with its aim of countering the Chinese naval presence in the Indo-Pacific. Once the site of British “civilizing” missions, a coercive penal system, violent Japanese occupation during WWII, and a formerly thriving but now outlawed timber industry, the Andamans are the location of conflicting postcolonial imaginaries. From environmentalists’ pleas to “save” the “fragile” islands, to marketing for tourists portraying them as a tropical paradise holiday destination, the Andamans are a poly-semiotic place at the friction point of center-periphery tensions.&#x0D; I focus on three questions in this article: Firstly, how does the Indian mainland/center see the islands? Secondly, how do different islanders see, on the one hand, the mainland—both as it is today and in terms of memorialized places of family origin—and, on the other, “their” own islands and their internal divisions? Thirdly, how do marginalized subaltern islanders conceive of their position on the islands’ periphery—on the one hand vis-.-vis the political centers of Port Blair and Delhi, and, on the other, the politically dominant groups on the islands?

This study attempts to assess the differentials of cognitive development and nutrition of school children in tribal areas of Jharkhand, India. A cross-sectional study was carried out in 16 schools of Jharkhand amongst 962 children during the period of November to December 2017. Anthropometry, hemoglobin and IQ tests were assessed along-with their socio-demographic characteristics using standard procedures after obtaining their guardian's consent. Various tests of significance were used such as an independent sample t-test and Fisher's exact test along with multinomial logistic regression for determination of predictors for low-normal to borderline IQ among school children. Stunting and thinness were noted in 38% and 35% children, respectively, whereas anemia and low IQ were observed in more than 4/5th of the total children assessed. Anemia was more common in children >12 years of age and IQ was lower in tribal ethnic children (p < 0.05) amongst socio-demographic characteristics. Among the predictors, only tribal ethnicity appeared to be associated with low IQ [odds ratio (OR)-1.85; 95% confidence interval (CI) - 1.25, 2.75]. Despite various nutrition-related programs being run in government schools, the malnutrition and hemoglobin status of the children presents a poor picture. Cognitive development of children particularly tribal children is unsatisfactory and needs to be worked upon by government agencies.

The hypothesis about the relative success of India's ethno-federal model in the mainland of India seems well-established in the writings on Indian federalism and ethnic conflict management. It is argued here that while this model has been responsible for relative peace and political stability in the mainland, India's North East tells us an opposite story. In this article, the author uses the case of India's North East to show that federalism in the North East has remained problematic. In conclusion, the need for paying serious attention to the question of how best to address the question of relationship between ethnicity and territory amidst complex diversity for durable political order and stability is highlighted.

Drawing on the example of the Nyishi of Arunachal Pradesh, an ethnic group that has been enjoying a wave of popular revival in recent years, this study suggests that changes in the perceptions of an ethnic identity are related to socio-economic transformation. The festival is a key aspect of the Nyishi revival since the 1970s. An examination of the history, activities, and contemporary spatio-temporal organization of festivals reveals similarities to other aspects of a society of mass consumption. Niche marketing, the structuring of recreation around the modern work week, and the establishment of personal identity through the purchase of symbolically rich commodities are all embodied in contemporary Nyishi festivals. At the same time, the consumption of ethnic commodities is linked by the consumers with a sense of tradition and descent from a mythic past. The festivals of Nyishi are, in this sense, invented traditions and, paradoxically, a measure of the assimilation of this particular ethnic group into Indian culture. This study explores the significant role that Nyishi festivals has played, and continues to play, in the creation and maintenance of Nyishi identity, both within and outside the boundaries of Arunachal Pradesh. By regularly performing the festivals, the Nyishi people are constantly constructing and restructuring their culture, customs, traditions, values and identity, both to themselves and to the world beyond.

To ensure health care access among the vulnerable and the poor is the prerogative of the State since the financial burden of curative care is higher among lower income groups, most of whom are Dalits. In the last 70 years, India has achieved considerable improvement in the health of its people. Nonetheless, the gap across social groups remains wide. There is evident association of low health status with poor, female gender, rural place of residence, tribal ethnicity, scheduled castes (SC) and specific minority groups. Therefore, the need is to revisit policy implementation regime and environment to ensure health equity. This article aims at explaining pertinent healthcare issues and challenges through select indicators of health, poverty, illness-induced expenditure and coping mechanisms across social groups.

Background: The anterior chamber angle (ACA) is the anatomical angle bounded by the iris root and the peripheral corneal vault that comprises the aqueous outflow drains, namely the trabecular meshwork (TM) and the Schlemm's canal. The assessment of the ACA is used to classify glaucoma into open or narrow angle glaucoma's. Objective: The aim of this study is to determine the normal range values of the gonioscopic character of the ACA in adult Sudanese population and to define the effects of age, gender, and tribal ethnicity on these values. Materials and Methods: Three hundred ninety-eight eyes (n = 396); of 198 adults volunteers Sudanese healthy workers, from two factories in Khartoum, North district, were enrolled in this study; over a period of 3 months from January 1, 2009 to March 30, 2009. One hundred and sixty males 38 were females; aged ranged from 18 to 50 years. All participants underwent systematic static and dynamic gonioscopy by Posner Gonio lens in conjunction with Haag- Streit slit lamp. Then, the ACAs were graded according to Shaffer grading and classification system. The effect of age, gender and tribal ethnicity on ACA was analyzed. Then, the overall grading and TM Pigmentation analysis were done with special grading criteria specifically designed for this study (Manal–Saleem ACA Overall Grading System and Saleem-Manal TM Pigmentation Grading System). Results: In total, 198 (n = 198) Sudanese adults were recruited for the study with the mean age of the study group was 43 ± 16 years (range: 18–50 years). About 80.8% of males and 19.2% of females. 77.8% have open ACA and 19.2% narrow ACA, 0.5% closed ACA, and 2.5% with Creeping ACA. Open ACA is more in males (81.3%) than female (63.2%) while narrow ACA is more in female (34.2%) than male (15.6%). Closed and creeping ACA are similar in the two sexes. The effects of tribal ethnicity was not so profound as both the Arabs (84.1%) and Africans (87.5%) origin groups were showing minor differences in the high rate of open-angle (3.4% more in the African's) and narrow ACA (2.9% more in Arab's) apart from the Bejja groups, who recorded 100% narrow ACA while the Nubian groups of Far North recorded a lower percentage of the open ACA (78.6%) and higher of narrow ACA (17.9%). Narrow ACA was proved to be more with older age (25% as compared 10–12.5%). The TM Pigmentation in the younger age groups was found to be of lightly pigmented in 66.7% and heavily pigmented in 33.3%. A result which was affected by tribal ethnicity; 54.9% of Arab origin groups have lightly pigmented TM while 92.0% of African origin groups presented with heavily pigmented TM. In general, pigmentation was shown to be more heavily in the inferior quadrant rather than superior and horizontal quadrants. Conclusion: There is a higher rate of open ACA (77.8%) in Sudanese Adults with low rate (19.2%) of narrow ACA, followed by an even more lower rate of creeping ACA 2.5% and scarcely closed ACAs (0.5%). The average Sudanese ACA TM pigmentation is 35.4% being of light pigmentation and 64.6% of heavy pigmentation with highly significant tribal, age, and Quadrantic variations (P = 0.000).

Background: The face is the most distinctive part of the human body. Of all areas on the face, the bilateral orbital regions which are located in the upper half of the face act as a strong influence in the perception of facial attractiveness, esthetic criteria, and “ideal” features of any certain nation. This fact increases the needs for interorbital anthropometry or interocular distances (IODs) which refers to the measurements of the human far interpupillary distance (FIPD), near interpupillary distance (NIPD), outer canthal distance (OCD), and inner canthal distance (ICD) among individuals of different age, sex, and ethnicity. Objective: To assess the normal ranges of interorbital anthropometric values among adult healthy Sudanese population and to define the effects of age, gender, and tribal ethnicity on interorbital anthropometry. Materials and Methods: Systematic interorbital anthropometric measurements were done in 920 Sudanese adults aged 20–85 years. Parameters included were FIPD, NIPD, OCD, and ICD across age, sex, and tribal ethnic perspective of the study subjects. Comparisons were made between their gender, age, and tribal ethnicity using the Chi-square test. Results: The study included 565 female (61.4%) and 355 male (38.6%) subjects with mean age of 48 ± 20 (range 20–85) years. Significant age, gender, and ethnical dimorphism were noted in the following parameters. OCD (male: 92.23 mm; female: 90.79 mm), FIPD (male: 63.20 mm; female: 61.57 mm), NIPD (male: 59.34 mm; female: 57.73 mm), and ICD (male: 34.30 mm; female: 33.00 mm). Conclusion: Significant interorbital measurement differences were found between Sudanese males and females in different age and ethnic groups. The present study suggests that age, gender, and ethnicity should be considered in Sudanese esthetic criteria and “ideal” features in any cosmetic or reconstructive orbital surgery. To individualize the treatment planning and diagnosis, it is important for the surgeons to have knowledge of these local Sudanese interorbital norms.

The association between Diabetes Mellitus (DM) and Tuberculosis (TB) poses a strong public health challenge. Tribal ethnics possess a different propensity towards infectious and haematological diseases which may influence the inter-relationship of DM and TB and thus merit separate attention. To investigate the prevalence of diabetes in newly diagnosed pulmonary TB patients of tribal ethnicity in Odisha. A cross-sectional study was carried out over a period of 9 months at four designated TB microscopic centres in a tribal district (Malkangiri) of Odisha. A total of 110 tribal adults newly diagnosed with pulmonary TB were examined for Fasting Blood Sugar (FBS) level. Diagnosis of DM and Impaired Fasting Glucose (IFG) were based on cut-off value of FBS recommended by the WHO. Data was entered and analysed using SPSS version 22.0. The prevalence of diabetes and IFG are found to be 13.9% and 8.9%, respectively. A significant difference (p<0.05) was observed between the mean ages of the TB only (45.9 years) and TB-DM co-morbidity patients (53.8 years). No significant association was found between gender and diabetes. Clinical characteristics of TB were similar in TB and TB-DM co-morbidity patients. The prevalence of high FBS was found to be higher in newly diagnosed pulmonary TB patients of tribal ethnicity thus indicating the need for intensified bidirectional screening. Further studies should be undertaken towards the risk profiling of diabetes and other lifestyle diseases in this population.

Background: The axial length is one of the essential ocular biometric parameters which is to be done prior to any cataract surgery based on ultrasound. These ocular axial length (OAL) values can be influenced by sex, age, race, ethnicity, genetics, and refractive errors. Objectives: The aim of this study is to determine the normal ranges values of OAL in adult Sudanese population and to define the effects of age, gender, and tribal ethnicity on axial length. Materials and Methods: This is descriptive multi-center hospital-based study, carried out over a period of 6 months from January 2015 to June 2015. The study takes place in five study areas: Three in Khartoum and two in Omdorman. These centers are Khartoum Eye Hospital, Makkah Eye Complex, Alwalidain Eye Hospital, and Omdurman Military Hospital and Sudan Eye Center. The study population was recruited from patients presenting to the mentioned five Hospitals Biometric Departments or volunteers who accepted to be enrolled in the study. One thousand Sudanese adults participants (n = 1000), 507 female and 493 male, with ages ranging from 18 to 105 years were included. Patients with vitreoretinal diseases, intraocular surgery, recent trauma and staphyloma were excluded. All participants underwent systematic OAL measurements by A-scan ultrasonography. Effect of age, gender, and tribal ethnicity on OAL was analyzed. Results: The study showed that the average axial length was 23.09 mm ranging from 18.13 mm to 29.09 mm. It was longer in males (average 23.29), ranging from 20.31 mm to 28.48 mm and shorter in females (average 22.81), ranging from 18.31 mm to 29.09 mm. In the four main Sudanese tribes, the Nubian group had the longest axial length (23.23 mm), followed by the African group (23.15 mm), and then the Arab group (23.09 mm). Bejja group had the shortest axial length (22.85 mm). Conclusion: OAL in Sudanese adults was within the international standard but with a wider range (18.13–29.09 mm). Males' OAL was longer than the OAL of females. No significant age OAL variations, but the tribal ethnicity factor was clear, so tribal ethnicity had a major influence on Sudanese OAL.

ObjectiveTo investigate visceral leishmaniasis (VL) deaths and risk factors in two VL endemic areas of Bangladesh.DesignRetrospective cross-sectional.SettingTwo geographically and culturally different VL endemic subdistricts, Godagari in the district of Rajshahi...