Tree Limbs Research Articles

Response of UFO (Upright Fruiting Offshoots) on Cherry Trees to Mechanical Harvest by Dynamic Vibratory Excitation

<abstract><title><italic>Abstract.</italic></title> A series of mechanical harvest experiments was conducted in a high-density sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) orchard to advance our knowledge of energy requirements and harvest efficiency. The primary goal of this research was to gain a better understanding of the dynamic response of fruiting wood to the forced vibrations and transmission patterns of vibratory energy on both the target and non-target trees. Experiments were conducted on UFO (upright fruiting offshoots) trees trained to an architecture consisting of unbranched upright offshoots. Field data collected from 31 tested trees revealed constant resonant frequencies within the upright offshoots at 8 to 10 Hz, which was attributed to the simple morphological structure. Single-impact excitation of the same peak force was also applied to the same offshoots. The resulting relative kinetic energy ratio (RKER) showed that resonant oscillation could obtain high amplification of vibratory energy, whereas the impact energy was attenuated. The supporting wire of the trellis system had little effect on the dynamic characteristics of tree limbs but could help in propagating vibratory energy within the tested tree and adjacent trees. In contrast, the foliage and fruits had a significant damping effect on both the dynamic response and vibratory energy transmission along limbs. The experimental assessment of mechanical harvest efficiency revealed a 77% fruit removal by vibratory force applied near the resonant frequency range of tested trees (between 12 and 16 Hz).

Role of endogenous secretory RAGE (esRAGE) in defending against plaque formation induced by oxidative stress in type 2 diabetic patients

ObjectivesThis study was conducted to examine the relationship between endogenous secretory receptors for advanced glycation end products (esRAGE) and oxidative stress in type 2 diabetic patients (T2DM) with/without advanced macro-angiopathy. MethodsSixty-one T2DM were assessed for glycemic control, lipid profile, AGEs, carboxymethyl-lysine (CML), soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products (sRAGE), esRAGE and vitamin E levels, and underwent echo-color-Doppler of the abdominal aorta and aorto-iliac tree, carotid and lower limb arteries to check for evidence of plaques. ResultsAGEs and CML levels were significantly higher in T2DM with plaques than in those without (P = 0.0156 and P = 0.007, respectively) despite a comparable metabolic control and history of disease. EsRAGE and vitamin E levels were lower in T2DM with than in those without plaques (P < 0.0001), while no differences were observed as regards sRAGE levels. Considering all T2DM, univariate regression analysis showed a positive correlation between esRAGE and vitamin E (r = 0.456, P < 0.001), and a negative correlation between esRAGE and AGEs (r = −0.284, P < 0.05). After dividing patients by the presence/absence of plaques, esRAGE only correlated directly with vitamin E (r = 0.563, P < 0.01) and CML (r = 0.479, P < 0.05) in patients without plaques. ConclusionsThis is the first study to establish a relationship between esRAGE and oxidative stress and/or antioxidant power, suggesting that esRAGE upregulation might be part of the cell's antioxidative defenses against plaque forming as a result of oxidative stress in the T2DM phenotype (cases with a more efficient esRAGE production being better protected).

Local variation of inundation, sedimentary characteristics, and mineral assemblages of the 2011 Tohoku-oki tsunami on the Misawa coast, Aomori, Japan

The 2011 Tohoku-oki tsunami caused severe damage to the coastal regions of eastern Japan and left a sediment veneer over affected areas. We discuss differences in depositional characteristics of the 2011 Tohoku-oki tsunami from the viewpoint of the sediment source, coastal topography and flow height. The study area on the Misawa coast, northern Tohoku, includes a 20km long coastline with sandy beaches, coastal dunes and a gently sloping lowland. This landscape assemblage provides an opportunity to examine the effects of topography on the characteristics of the tsunami deposit. During field surveys conducted from April 10 to May 2, 2011, we described the thickness, facies, and structure of the tsunami deposit. We also collected sand samples at approximately 20m intervals along 13 shore-perpendicular transects extending up to 550m inland, for grain size and mineral assemblage analysis. The tsunami flow height was estimated by measuring the elevation of debris found in trees, broken tree limbs, or water marks on buildings.The nature of the coastal lowland affected the flow height and inundation distance. In the southern part of the study area, where there is a narrow, 100m wide low-lying coastal strip, the run-up height reached 10m on the landward terrace slopes. To the north, the maximum inundation reached 550m with a run-up height of 3.2m on the wider, low-lying coastal topography. The average flow height was 4–5m.The tsunami eroded coastal dunes and formed small scarps along the coast. Immediately landward of the coastal dunes the tsunami deposit was more than 20cm thick, but thinned markedly inland from this point. Close to the dunes the deposit was composed largely of medium sand (1–2 Φ) with planar and parallel bedding, but with no apparent upward fining or coarsening. The grain size was similar to that of the coastal dune and we infer that the dunes were the local source material for the tsunami deposit at this point. The mineral assemblage of the tsunami deposit was dominated by orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene and was also similar to the dune and beach sand. At sites more than half the inundation distance inland, the thinner tsunami deposit consisted mainly of fine sand (2.375 Φ) with some upward fining. The difference in grain size and sedimentary characteristics was probably caused by differences in sediment transportation and depositional processes. We infer that the well-sorted, finer sediments were deposited out of suspension, whereas the relatively coarse sands were laid down from traction flows. The depositional characteristics of the 2011 Tohoku-oki tsunami deposit appeared to have been affected mainly by the coastal topography and the extent of erosion at any one point, as opposed to flow height.

Protocorms of an epiphytic orchid (Epidendrum amphistomum A. Richard) recovered in situ, and subsequent identification of associated mycorrhizal fungi using molecular markers

Epiphytic orchids have received considerable study, yet little has been published on their germination requirements in situ involving mycorrhizal fungi. Such research has been hampered by the small, dust-like size of seeds and leafless seedlings (protocorms) which are difficult to pinpoint on natural substrates, especially those on arboreal substrates (tree limbs). We report a novel seed sowing and retrieval method, modified from one applied to terrestrial orchids, used in the acquisition of epiphytic orchid protocorms from the Florida Panther National Wildlife Refuge. Seeds from two epiphytic orchid species (Epidendrum amphistomum A. Richard, E. nocturnum Jacquin) were placed in separate nylon mesh packets secured within 35 mm plastic slide mounts, and affixed to tree bark using gutter mesh and a staple gun. To confirm that the embryos were viable, some seeds were also sown on asymbiotic media in the laboratory which subsequently germinated after 52 days incubation. Of 60 packets distributed among 18 tree limb sites, one packet - harboring seeds of E. amphistomum affixed to pop ash (Fraxinus caroliniana Mill.) on a moss substrate - harbored protocorms after 267 days. Using molecular markers, a fungus assignable to the Ceratobasidiaceae, appears to be the mycorrhizal associate of these protocorms suggesting that this fungus may be associated with the germination process in situ.

Biomass yield from an urban landscape

Abstract Utilizing biomass from urban landscapes could significantly contribute to renewable energy needs. An experiment was begun in 2007 to evaluate the biomass production from a bermudagrass, Cynodon dactylon var. dactylon (L.) Pers., lawn in Woodward, Oklahoma USA and to estimate the potential biomass yield for the City of Woodward. Each year in April, the lawn was dethatched and fertilized. Mowing began in mid-to-late May and biomass dry matter (DM) yield was estimated by harvesting four 1 m × 16 m areas. In addition, the DM yield of fallen leaves and tree limbs from pruning operations were added to the lawn yield estimates for total annual biomass potential. These data suggest that during years of high growing season precipitation it was possible to harvest from 13.5 to 19.0 Mg of DM biomass per planted hectare from an urban landscape and 8.0 to 12.3 Mg of DM biomass per planted hectare in years with near normal precipitation and temperatures. It was estimated that the City of Woodward could generate about 3750 Mg of biomass dry matter in a normal rainfall year and about 6100 Mg in a high rainfall year if every homeowner collected their lawn thatch and clippings, and tree leaves, twigs, and limbs for bioenergy production. On the basis of a 10 Mg ha −1 annual DM yield, an estimated 164 million Mg of dry biomass material could be collected in the USA from planted urban areas. Biomass from urban landscapes is an untapped resource and further research is needed to fully explore its potential.

A Markov model to analyze cost-effectiveness of screening for severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)

ObjectiveTo evaluate the cost-effectiveness of universal neonatal screening for T cell lymphocytopenia in enhancing quality of life and life expectancy for children with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). MethodsDecision trees were created and analyzed to estimate the cost, life years, and quality adjusted life years (QALYs) across a population when universal screening for lack of T cells is used to detect SCID, as implemented in five states, compared to detection based on recognizing symptoms and signs of disease. Terminal values of each tree limb were derived through Markov models simulating the natural history of three cohorts: unaffected subjects; those diagnosed with SCID as neonates (early diagnosis); and those diagnosed after becoming symptomatic and arousing clinical suspicion (late diagnosis). Models considered the costs of screening and of care including hematopoietic cell transplantation for affected individuals. Key decision variables were derived from the literature and from a survey of families with children affected by SCID, which was used to describe the clinical history and healthcare utilization for affected subjects. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to explore the influence of these decision variables. ResultsOver a 70-year time horizon, the average cost per infant was $8.89 without screening and $14.33 with universal screening. The model predicted that universal screening in the U.S. would cost approximately $22.4million/year with a gain of 880 life years and 802 QALYs. Sensitivity analyses showed that screening test specificity and disease incidence were critical driving forces affecting the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER). Assuming a SCID incidence of 1/75,000 births and test specificity and sensitivity each at 0.99, screening remained cost-effective up to a maximum cost of $15 per infant screened. ConclusionAt our current estimated screening cost of $4.22/infant, universal screening for SCID would be a cost effective means to improve quality and duration of life for children with SCID.

Stunt Barbie - A Laboratory Practicum Combining Constant Velocity and Constant Acceleration

In preparing to teach the advanced physics course at my high school, I found it useful to work through the end-of-chapter problems in the book1 used by the advanced class. A problem on motion in one dimension involved a stunt woman in free fall from a tree limb onto a horse running beneath her.2 The problem presents a connected learning opportunity for students because it requires the use of the constant velocity model xf = v*t + xi and the constant acceleration model yf = ½* g* t2 + vyi* t + yi (where g = 9.8 m/s/s) to solve it. I named the stunt woman Barbie and created an activity titled “Stunt Barbie.”

Logging Business Practices and Perspectives on Harvesting Forest Residues for Energy: A Minnesota Case Study

Abstract Timber harvesting residues, specifically the nonmerchantable tree tops and limbs associated with a commercial roundwood harvest, have the capacity to supply substantial feedstock for energy production. Phone interviews of Minnesota's logging business owners who process residual woody biomass for energy using chippers and grinders were conducted in summer 2008 to characterize their practices on harvesting and processing these residues and to collect qualitative data describing biomass harvesting opportunities and constraints. Minnesota's logging businesses are highly variable with respect to many aspects of woody biomass harvesting, such as preferred tree species, equipment configurations, strategies for collecting and processing residual biomass, and utilization efficiency. Factors cited as having a substantial influence on future biomass harvesting opportunities included the environmental benefits of burning woody biomass over traditional nonrenewable fuels and the potential for biomass harvesting to positively affect wildlife habitat and forest health. Low prices received for delivered wood chips and grindings, high fixed and variable operating costs, and resource uncertainty about future harvesting restrictions due to environmental concerns were cited as important issues that could limit growth in the state's woody biomass harvesting sector.

First Report of Calosphaeria pulchella Associated with Branch Dieback of Sweet Cherry Trees in California.

California is the second largest sweet cherry producer in the United States with approximately 10,800 ha and an average annual crop value of approximately $150 million. Perennial canker diseases constitute major threats to the cherry industry productivity by reducing tree health, longevity, and yields. During the course of summer 2006, we observed severe limb and branch dieback of sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) in San Joaquin, San Benito, Contra Costa, and Stanislaus counties of California. Isolation from diseased branches repeatedly yielded the fungus Calosphaeria pulchella (Pers.: Fr.) J. Schröt. (1,2). Cankers and vascular necroses had developed in tree limbs and branches, generally initiating from the heart wood and later spreading into the sapwood. External symptoms of disease may be unapparent throughout the early stages of infection, particularly in large diameter shoots. Older infections often appeared as wilted leaves. Branches and trunks affected with cankers from which C. pulchella was isolated also generally bore perithecia of C. pulchella beneath the periderm. Perithecia were nonstromatic and arranged in dense, circinate groups, with elongated necks converging radially and fissuring the periderm. Asci were unitunicate, clavate, and 45 to 55 × 5 to 5.5 μm. Ascospores were allantoid to suballantoid, hyaline, and 5 to 6 × 1 μm. Colonies on potato dextrose agar (PDA) were dark pink to red in their center with a white margin. Conidia were hyaline, allantoid to oblong-ellipsoidal, and (3-) 4 to 6 (-9) × 1.5 to 2 (-2.5) μm. Identification of C. pulchella isolates also was confirmed by sequence comparison in GenBank database using the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2) of the rDNA. Sequences of California isolates shared 100% similarity with C. pulchella reference isolate CBS 115999 (EU367451) (2). ITS sequences of the California isolates used in this study were deposited into GenBank (Nos. HM237297 to HM237300). Pathogenicity of four isolates recovered from the margin of active cankers was determined by branch inoculations. In December 2006, 2- to 4-year-old twigs of P. avium cv. Bing were inoculated with a 5-mm cork borer to remove bark and by placing an agar plug from the growing margin of 8-day-old colonies directly into the fresh wound, mycelium side down. Ten branches per isolate were inoculated. Ten control shoots were inoculated with noncolonized agar plugs. Inoculations were covered with vaseline and wrapped with Parafilm to retain moisture. Branches were harvested in July 2007 and taken to the laboratory to be examined for canker development, and the extent of vascular discoloration in each branch was assessed. Isolations from the edge of discolored tissue were conducted to fulfill Koch's postulates. After 8 months, C. pulchella was reisolated from 100% of the inoculated branches. Length of vascular discoloration averaged 62.5 mm in branches inoculated with the four C. pulchella isolates and 16.5 mm in the control twigs. No fungi were reisolated from the slightly discolored tissue of the controls. To our knowledge, this study constitutes the first report of C. pulchella as a pathogen of sweet cherry trees in California.

Remembering

Remembering Renea Winchester (bio) This year marks the seventy-fifth anniversary of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. May all who have family buried there return to their heritage and remember, and may others seeking to learn more about the families who lost their homes experience the majesty and wonder of the land many called home. The road narrows and turns to grass. I inhale deeply and fight back tears. I am home. Several generations of family members have loaded into the back of pickup trucks then parted a sea of tourists to visit a place we hold sacred. While others flock to the Great Smoky Mountains National Park to play, we travel to a place few will ever see. We travel in part out of duty and respect. We travel to honor our heritage, and remember. Before we reach this sacred ground, Dad must maneuver through visitors who believe they are alone in the wilderness. Children trample endangered species of flora and fauna. Tree limbs are broken for walking sticks. They maneuver cumbersome remnants from worn out tires and expel water through soggy shoes with a squish. They walk, through no fault of their own, unaware of the history these grand mountains possess. Not too long ago, the creek was the lifeblood of the community. White water rapids transported enormous hand-cut logs to town where Carolina Wood Turning Company converted them into lumber. The crystal clear water also held tiny nuggets of gold few ever found. The creek provided families with fish and offered a cool drink. But today, in our hurried world, we don't seem to need the creek for food or water. Her purpose now is recreation. My feet dangle from the edge of the tailgate. "Hi ya'll," I wave then quickly add, "how ya'll doin'?" My overdrawn greeting evokes an eye roll. "How did these trucks get in here?" Someone says as we pass. The caravan of trucks presses higher and soon reaches the place where tubing is prohibited. Dad takes the left fork, and I give a final wave as we leave civilization. The sound of water tickling rocks can be heard above the rumbling of rusty tailpipes. I close my eyes, inhale deeply, and lift my face toward the heavens. [End Page 65] Beside me, my aunt says, "No place in the world smells as good as this." The fragrance, a mixture of vanishing memories, honeysuckle, and decaying leaves, tugs at my heart, squeezing out painful remembrances with each beat. As a child, I piled in the back of an older, rustier pickup truck. In those days you could ride on the main highway in the back of a truck without getting a ticket. My heart longs for those times again; when I sang songs to the top of my lungs and stood on my tiptoes to pick leaves from low-hanging limbs. Today, I duck as we pass under the same trees and keep a watchful eye on children as they reach toward the heavens to capture leaves. This year the weather is beautiful, and bugs are few. Mountain laurel welcomes us with a grand display. White umbrella-like blooms litter the road. I smile and watch a breeze pluck a peppermint-colored bloom and spin it to the forest floor where it lands without a sound. Dad interrupts my sightseeing when he yells out the window, "Pick up your feet. There's a hog-waller up ahead." I scan the woods, hoping to see the hog that has been rolling around in the dingy mud puddle. For a moment, I feel five years old. I'm anxious to touch this place. I want to leap from the truck and splash about in the mud. Instead, I pick up my feet as the truck disturbs the puddle so my shoes won't be sucked off. My laughter mixes with the children's and echoes through the valley as the truck bounces from side to side. "Hang on back thair," Dad calls. The muddy water crashes back in place. Not a single shoe is lost. It's a good day. Overhead the hemlocks are loosing the battle with the Wooly...

APPLES

1 2 9 R A P P L E S T A L V I K K I A N S E L I kept my toads in a cage circled beneath the apple tree. They said I was cold, I was not but I stole, see me there at dusk thinking no one cared about the apples they were abandoned, carrying them home, T-shirt heavy bulging with their weight and roundness, in the softening green, tree limbs glowing. We go back to patterns, the circles weeded beneath trees I repeat here, dirt crumbled and heaped up neatly like a dry mix before baking. Or, how laying out the garden plan, I shaped out rectangles, beds jutting out from the stone wall, anchored there perpendicular-wise. I merely watched was aware of the toads’ round-shouldered figures coming out from the sage at night their gold-flecked eyes. Remembering one that long ago followed me into the house, silent familiar in the corner on the wood-floored porch, or by the garbage pail. 1 3 0 A N S E L Y In a cage of twigs and chicken wire below the orchard’s trees. Go back to the monks’ tour of Manhattan Island’s orchards 1715, ‘‘Stone Fruits in Sweete Abundance.’’ The caged toads at the bases of trees unmolested by the dog who looks over them, inscrutable as to their bitterness. A sticky globe, apple red, tangles flies in the boughs, the toads are rewarded: the sweet taste of coddling moths the steady, plowing grubs that come to the trees. There’s always more to think of regarding apples: the graft enclosed in wax-bound string, a severed and healed branch. Roots seeking calcium, growing into the skeletons of Roger and Mary Williams. This apple tree, floating in the back field, but not really alone: the grubs, toads, green smudge of lichen on its limbs, the great crested flycatcher who shrieks above later in the summer season across the stone wall, another apple’s buds, the calcium in our bones bearing our sweet weight into evening. ...

Management of penetrating zone II neck injuries

The incidence of penetrating and lacerated neck injuries has been on the rise recently because of the increase in road traffic mishaps. Clothesline injuries are injuries caused by striking against a stationery object like a wire or tree limb. Most of the times these end up causing blunt injuries with associated fracture of the laryngeal framework. Here we report two cases of penetrating neck injuries with successful outcomes and also the problems encountered in the management of these cases. A proper evaluation, rapid airway intervention and proper surgical repair are essential for a successful outcome.

Seasonal and diel patterns of biting midges (Ceratopogonidae) and mosquitoes (Culicidae) on the Parris Island Marine Corps Recruit Depot

The Marine Corps Recruit Depot on Parris Island, SC, is surrounded by tidal salt marshes, which are breeding habitats for many pestiferous biting flies. Knowledge of biting fly behavior patterns is needed to develop effective pest management strategies in urban areas adjacent to salt marshes. We measured biting midge (Ceratopogonidae) and mosquito (Culicidae) seasonal abundance and diel activity patterns on Parris Island using CO(2)-baited suction traps from November 2001 - November 2004. Of the three biting midge species collected, Culicoides furens was most abundant (86.2% of total) and was present in high numbers from late March to November. Culicoides hollensis (12.0% of total) was present during spring and fall but absent in summer and winter; and Culicoides melleus (1.7% of total) was present in spring through fall but absent in winter. Abundance of C. furens had a positive linear correlation with air temperature and rainfall. There were nonlinear correlations between air temperature and C. hollensis and C. melleus numbers, which were most abundant at moderate temperatures. Of 18 mosquito species collected, the most abundant were Aedes taeniorhynchus (42.7% of total), Aedes sollicitans (26.3% of total), Culex salinarius (15.6% of total), Culex quinquefasciatus (7.3% of total), and Aedes vexans (5.7% of total); other species comprised <5% of collections. Aedes taeniorhynchus numbers were positively correlated with temperature and rainfall, and Cx. salinarius was correlated with soil moisture. Activity of most biting midges and mosquitoes were highest the first two hours following sunset. Species of biting flies were present in all months, suggesting that year-round control measures are necessary to reduce exposure to potential disease vectors and nuisance biting.

HILLTOPPING BEHAVIOR OF TWO SPECIES OF ASTATA (HYMENOPTERA: CRABRONIDAE) IN CENTRAL ARIZONA

On a hilltop in central Arizona, males of the wasp, Astata boharti, exhibit fidelity to certain perch sites on the ground, while males of Astata occidentalis return to perch sites on the outer twigs of the limbs of trees and shrubs. As is true for other members of the genus, males of both species fly out from and then back to their perches, sometimes in response to passing insects. Both species are present during the late morning to early afternoon in September, when temperatures are still high in the Sonoran Desert. Although during this study, males of neither species were seen interacting with females, their behavior is convergent with that of a variety of other species of insects known to possess a mating system in which males wait for females to come to them at perch sites on hilltops. Hilltopping behavior has been previously documented for only a few crabronid wasps.

THE EFFECTS OF SHAKING FREQUENCY AND AMPLITUDE ON DETACHMENT OF LIME FRUIT

The aim of this study was to determine the most suitable shaking frequency and amplitude for shake harvesting lime fruit (C. aurantifolia). A tractor mounted limb shaker with adjustable shaking frequency and amplitude, powered by the tractor power-take-off shaft was designed and developed for this study. The rotating input power was transmitted to the shaker flywheel through a multiple sheave v-belt drive system where it was converted to reciprocating motion by a slider crank mechanism. The resulting vibrating motion could be transmitted to the tree limb through a telescoping boom and a special clamping device. A 3x3 factorial experiment arranged in a completely randomized design with three replications was conducted to investigate the effects of shaking frequency and amplitude on fruit detachment. Three levels of oscillating frequency (5, 7.5 and 10 Hz) and three levels of shaking amplitude (40, 80 and 120 mm) were investigated. Analysis of variance and mean comparison showed that the effect of shaking frequency on fruit detachment was significant. However, those of shaking amplitude and its interactions with frequency were not significant. The percentage of detached fruits significantly increased by increasing the shaking frequency, but the shaking frequency or amplitude had no significant effect on fruit damage. Complete fruit detachment (100%), was obtained by applying shaking amplitude of 120 mm at a frequency of 10 Hz, but considerable leaf removal at this combination of shaking frequency and amplitude was a limiting factor. Therefore, shaking the limbs at 80 mm amplitude and 10 Hz frequency with about 98.5% fruit detachment and negligible leaf shattering was found to be the most suitable combination. In order to determine the bonding strength of lime fruits, a series of tests were conducted in which, the average pulling force required for detaching ripe and unripe fruits as well as fruit mass and geometric mean diameter were measured. The average static force required for removing ripe fruits was found to be about 14.2% of that required for removing unripe fruits. The average ratio of tensile force required for removing a fruit to its weight (Fs/W) was measured as 6.9 and 61.8 for ripe and unripe fruits, respectively. The two indices suggest utilizing a limb shaker as a valuable approach for selective harvesting of ripe fruits. This is especially true for fruit varieties with non-uniform ripening characteristics.

Automatic identification for standing tree limb pruning

To meet the demand of automatic pruning machines, this paper presents a new method for dynamic automatic identification of standing tree limbs and capture of the digital images of Platycladus orientalis. Methods of computer vision, image processing and wavelet analysis technology were used to compress, filter, segment, abate noise and capture the outline of the picture. We then present the arithmetic for dynamic automatic identification of standing tree limbs, extracting basic growth characteristics of the standing trees such as the form, size, degree of bending and their relative spatial position. We use pattern recognition technology to confirm the proportionate relationship matching the database and thus achieve the goal of dynamic automatic identification of standing tree limbs.

Mechanical harvesting of pistachio nuts

An inertia type limb shaker, hydraulically powered and driven by the tractor power take-off, was used for mechanical harvesting of pistachio nuts. The study included optimum frequency and amplitude to obtain maximum fruit removal percentage, harvesting rate of the shaker and comparisons with other harvesting methods. Harvesting rate was calculated by weighing both the harvested and unharvested pistachio nuts. In the tests the limbs of trees were shaken at 40, 50, 60 mm amplitude of the connecting rod attached to the crankshaft and 10, 15, 20 Hz frequencies. The results were analyzed according to the maximum fruit removal percentage. Shaking time was 10 s for all of the frequency and amplitude tests. Maximum fruit removal (100%) was achieved by operating the shaker at amplitude of 60 mm and a frequency of 20 Hz. But closely results were achieved at amplitude of 50 mm and a frequency of 20 Hz. At this amplitude and frequency, fruit removal was 95.5%. The shaker caused excessive vibration of the frame when it was operated at great amplitudes. Therefore, amplitude of 50 mm and a frequency of 20 Hz for mechanical harvesting of pistachio nut trees can be suggested. In addition, it was found that the most appropriate harvesting time for Kirmizi variety of pistachio nut is the first week of September. Because, the ratio of fruit detachment force (FDF) to fruit weight (W) measurements, performed at different maturity times, was 6.8 N/g at the first week of September.

ERWINIA AMYLOVORA CAUSING FIRE BLIGHT OF PEAR IN THE GUILAN PROVINCE OF IRAN

Fire blight, caused by Erwinia amylovora, is one of the important bacterial diseases of pear trees. It causes blight of different organs of the tree (blossoms, shoots, leaves, fruits, and limbs) and production of exudates. During a survey of pear orchards in different areas of the Iranian province of Guilan (Astaneh, Ashrafieh, Lahijan, and Kiashahr) necrotic shoots and exudates were observed in apple and pear trees. Samples taken from infected tissues were crushed in peptone water and aliquots of 100 µl of the extract were cultured on nutrient agar (NA) and LB containing cycloheximide (50 µg ml-1). A rod-shaped, gram negative, facultative anaerobic bacterium was consistently isolated, which produced levan in sucrose media but not fluorescent pigment in King’s B medium. All isolates induced hypersensitive reaction (HR) in tobacco and geranium leaves, were oxidase, nitrate, urease, and indole negative, could not rot potato tuber slices, produced H2S, and grew at 36°C. The isolates could utilize citrate, arabinose, sorbitol, galactose, and trehalose as carbon source and their gelatin test was positive. Based on morphological, biochemical and physiological characters, and PCR amplification with specific primers, most bacterial isolates were identified as E. amylovora. Some isolates from spear orchards were identified as Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae. This is the first report of the occurrence of E. amylovora on pear trees in the province of Guilan.

VERTICAL POSITION OF TRAPS INFLUENCES CAPTURES OF EASTERN CHERRY FRUIT FLY (DIPTERA: TEPHRITIDAE)

VERTICAL POSITION OF TRAPS INFLUENCES CAPTURES OF EASTERN CHERRY FRUIT FLY (DIPTERA: TEPHRITIDAE)

Harold Baquet

Harold Baquet with Charles Henry Rowell Click for larger view Figure 1 Harold Baquet Photo by Wendell Gorden, © 2006 [End Page 1153] ROWELL: Since its beginnings in the eighteenth century, New Orleans has had, almost each year, to face the terror of hurricanes. Since the second half of the twentieth century, the people of the city have been given advanced warnings of approaching destructive hurricanes and have been told to leave the city. Many did, while others ignored the warnings—perhaps thinking they could "ride out" the storm and protect their property. There were, no doubt, many who felt that nothing would happen or that the hurricane would pass by the city. After all, that had been the case many times before—they had too many times heard the officials "crying wolf." Then there were others, as Hurricane Katrina so starkly demonstrated, who did not have the resources to leave the city. It is tragic that they always had to remain put in the city. But this time, with the approach of Hurricane Katrina, more than half of the people of New Orleans left the city. What do you think motivated so many people to evacuate as Hurricane Katrina approached? BAQUET: First of all, I want you to know that my family has been here in Louisiana since the 1690s. They came here from San Domingue, which is what Haiti was called before the Revolution. In other words, we have been dealing with hurricanes and similar kinds of weather for centuries. So when the hurricanes come, we have responsibilities, as a citizen, a neighbor, and a man. Your responsibility isn't really evacuation. Evacuation is something new. Before Katrina you would batten down the hatches, board up your windows and doors, stock food and supplies, water, tools and other necessities. We'd also keep on hand flashlights, batteries, and radios. A new thing we're doing is stockpiling gasoline to use in our generators. Let's not forget guns and ammo. Its true, we've always lived with the threats of hurricanes. No escaping nature. We have never run from a storm. There had never, until recently, been a FEMA or the government to step in and help dig us out. If my tree fell on my neighbor's roof, I knew I had to make it right. The morning after Katrina, we took ourselves out into the street to try to pull huge tree limbs and large oak trees out of the street to try to clear a path to the hospital that's near my home. That hospital, the only one remaining in the dry zone, became a command post of sorts for local and national health and rescue resources. Historically, we, my family, would ride out the storm, reacting moment to moment to the loss of electricity, then phone, then the window or ceiling, leaking rainwater. And this time many of us did the same thing; [End Page 1154] few of us fled. We now live with our collective horror stories of cousins having their homes flooded and having to evacuate to the second floor of their neighbor's house next door. They talk of the water rushing in and the appliances and the furniture flipping over on their sides. Yes, I mean we've always tried to get through the "whatever" life lays at our feet, and I've been, we've all been, real fortunate. Even this time, all of my family came through it alive. Many of us lost everything. But we were there for each other: we pooled our food, our resources and helped each other, and we got each other through it. We have nine and ten generations of this recovery activity and support as our tradition. Yes, we survived Hurricane Betsy back in '65. It flooded. The water was barely up to the floor of our 7th ward home. This time, with Katrina there were two feet of water inside our family home, meaning that Katrina brought about six feet of water in...