Transmission Of Pathogenic Bacteria Research Articles

A potential role of cockroaches in the transmission of pathogenic bacteria with antibiotic resistance: A scoping review.

The role of cockroaches in the cause of disease or human infections is not immediately obvious. The present study aimed to review the currently available research on the potential role of cockroaches in the transmission of pathogenic bacteria and bacteria with antibiotic resistance. A scoping review included the studies published for a period between January 2001 and December 2020. A search was performed through five databases, namely, PubMed, Sage, Springer, Sabinet, and Science Direct. A search strategy used was conducted according to the principles of Preferred Reporting Item for Systemic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). From 97 studies identified, 32 studies were included in the scoping review. The findings indicate that cockroaches may be a potential vector for a diverse range of pathogenic bacterial agents. Most bacterial agents isolated are antidrug-resistant and antibiotic-resistant which is considered the greatest threat to public health in the current period. Cockroach infestation should be considered as a serious concern, given the possible role of cockroaches as reservoirs of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Further research is needed which can provide a comprehensive understanding of the role of cockroaches in transmitting human infections.

Bacterial Prevalence in Skin, Urine, Diarrheal Stool, and Respiratory Samples from Dogs.

The emergence of bacterial infections in companion animals is a growing concern as humans can also be infected through the transmission of pathogenic bacteria. Because there have been few studies conducted on companion animals, the extent and significance of prevalence in veterinary practices remain unknown. This is the first nationwide surveillance report aimed at elucidating the prevalence pattern and associated infections of isolated bacteria from dogs in Korea. Bacterial isolates were collected from seven different laboratories participating in the Korean Veterinary Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System from 2018 to 2019. The samples were obtained from the diarrheal stool, skin/ear, urine, and respiratory samples of veterinary hospital-visited dogs. Isolation and identification of bacterial species was carried out using a bacterial culture approach and then confirmed with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Out of 3135 isolates in dogs, 1085, 1761, 171, and 118 were extracted from diarrheal stool, skin/ear, urine, and respiratory samples, respectively. The overall prevalence of bacteria was higher among two age groups (1–5 and 6–10 years) with a 66.5 percent prevalence. This study showed that Escherichia coli was the most prevalent species among isolated bacterial species of diarrheal and urine origin, whereas Staphylococcus pseudintermedius was the most prevalent among skin and respiratory sample isolates. The data on the prevalence of bacteria for each dog specimen could provide basic information to estimate the extent of bacterial infection and antimicrobial resistance development and to guide veterinarians in therapeutic decisions in clinical practices throughout Korea.

Waste Glass-Derived Tobermorite Carriers for Ag+ and Zn2+ Ions

In this study, the layer-lattice calcium silicate hydrate mineral, tobermorite, was synthesized from waste green or amber container glass and separately ion-exchanged with Ag+ or Zn2+ ions under batch conditions. Hydrothermal treatment of stoichiometrically adjusted mixtures of waste glass and calcium oxide in 4 M NaOH(aq) at 125 °C yielded tobermorite products of ~75% crystallinity with mean silicate chain lengths of 17 units after one week. Maximum uptake of Zn2+ ions, ~0.55 mmol g−1, occurred after 72 h, and maximum uptake of Ag+ ions, ~0.59 mmol g−1, was established within 6 h. No significant differences in structure or ion-exchange behavior were observed between the tobermorites derived from either green or amber glass. Composite membranes of the biopolymer, chitosan, incorporating the original or ion-exchanged tobermorite phases were prepared by solvent casting, and their antimicrobial activities against S. aureus and E. coli were evaluated using the Kirby–Bauer assay. S. aureus and E. coli formed biofilms on pure chitosan and chitosan surfaces blended with the original tobermorites, whereas the composites containing Zn2+-substituted tobermorites defended against bacterial colonization. Distinct, clear zones were observed around the composites containing Ag+-substituted tobermorites which arose from the migration of the labile Ag+ ions from the lattices. This research has indicated that waste glass-derived tobermorites are functional carriers for antimicrobial ions with potential applications as fillers in polymeric composites to defend against the proliferation and transmission of pathogenic bacteria.

Hand Soap Activity Against the Number oOf Bacterial Colonies from the Housewife's Hand Swab Samples in a Temporary Landfill in Kelurahan Gadang Banjarmasin

Abstract: Unhygienic waste handling in a temporary landfill, can make the surrounding environment a source of transmission of pathogenic bacteria and colonization of bacterial growth in the hands. The study aims to identify the type of bacteria on the hands and test the activity of hand wash soap in lowering the number of colonies of hand bacteria. The identification of bacteria against 30 hand swab samples derived from the hands of housewives in temporary landfill (TPS) in Kelurahan Gadang Banjarmasin, was carried out in conventional media. Test the activity of hand wash soap in lowering the number of colonies of hand bacteria using 2 different brands. Bacterial identification is carried out by descriptive method and experimental testing of hand wash soa p activity use pretest-posttest design with control group design. The data was analyzed using shapiro wilk test and wilcoxon test with 95% confidence level. Identification of hand swab bacterial isolates obtained Staphylococcus aureus (66.6%), Staphylococcus epidermidis (10%) and Escherichia coli (23.33%). Statistical analysis showed significant differences between the two brands of hand wash soap tested (sig. 0.000 >0.05). The conclusion of the type of gram-positive bacteria more widely found in the hands of housewives; Type B hand soap has a higher effectiveness in reducing the number of bacterial colonies on the hands than A-brand. Keywords: hand wash soap, housewife hand swab, number of colonies of hand bacteria.

Microbiome pattern of Lucilia sericata (Meigen) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) and feeding substrate in the presence of the foodborne pathogen Salmonella enterica

The microbial diversity and quantitative dynamics during the insect’s development stages constitute recently developed putative tools in forensic and medical studies. Meanwhile, little is known on the role of insects in spreading foodborne pathogenic bacteria and on the impact of these pathogens on the overall insects and feeding substrate microbiome composition. Here, we provide the first characterization of the bacterial communities harbored in adult and immature stages of Lucilia sericata, one of the first colonizers of decomposed human remains, in the presence of the foodborne pathogen Salmonella enterica using 16S rRNA Illumina sequencing and qPCR. The pathogen transmission from the wild adults to the second generation was observed, with a 101.25× quantitative increase. The microbial patterns from both insect and liver samples were not influenced by the artificial introduction of this pathogenic foodborne bacteria, being dominated by Firmicutes and Proteobacteria. Overall, our results provided a first detailed overview of the insect and decomposed substrate microbiome in the presence of a human pathogen, advancing the knowledge on the role of microbes as postmortem interval estimators and the transmission of pathogenic bacteria.

Rearing of broiler chickens with the use of different technological modes of biocidal means

Water is a serious vector of transmission of pathogenic bacteria. The quality of drinking water supplied to the drinking system when raising broiler chickens is one of the main афсещкs for the efficient production of poultry meat. With intensive poultry management when a large number of livestock is concentrated in one territory, it is necessary to pay special attention to the microflora of indoor air. The main sources of pollution are the poultry itself, feed and litter. The purpose of the research was to develop technological modes of using drug Anolit ANK SUPER in the rearing of broiler chickens. The research has been carried out on broiler chickens of the cross «Ross 308». The conditions of housing and feeding with the exception of the studied factor were the same for all groups of poultry and corresponded to the recommendations of the Federal Scientific Center «All-Russian Scientific Research and Technological Institute of Poultry» of Russian Academy of Science. The series of five experiments on the use of the neutral anolyte Anolit ANK SUPER was carried out in the work. It has been proposed to determine the quality of the preparation of the system of drinking lines in poultry premises using the System SURE Plus device (luminometer) and the Ultra Snap test. Experiment 5 has been carried out to study the effect of aerosol air treatment of poultry premises in the presence of poultry with the neutral anolyte on the concentration of microorganisms in the air of the poultry house and the productivity of broilers. The expediency of using the Anolit ANK SUPER drug for the sanitation of the drinking system in poultry premises has been determined. Comparative tests of the effectiveness of the drugs Anolit ANK SUPER, CID 2000 and DUTRION have been conducted. The features of various technological modes of using the Anolit ANK SUPER product in the rearing of broiler chickens have been shown and the effectiveness of their use has been established.

Occurrence of Chlorine Resistant Bacteria in Drinking Water Filtration Plants of Rawalpindi City, Pakistan

Waterborne bacterial infections are mainly caused by the direct transmission of pathogenic bacteria to the host through DW. Chlorination of DW is critical to prevent the water supplies from bacterial pathogens. In present study, microbiological quality of DW provided through filtration plants to Rawalpindi City was investigated. Experimentations were designed to screen bacterial tolerance to the added Chlorine, and to subsequent study the antibiotic sensitivity of isolated bacteria. A total of 107 water samples were collected. Out of which, 57.95% were found satisfactory for human consumption. pH determination revealed that 18.70% of the samples has pH in the range of 8.0 to 8.9. TDS analysis showed 14.01% of samples above the standard HDL (500 mg/L). Furthermore, 13.34% of the samples showed the highest load (351 to 1800 CFU/100mL) of fecal coliforms. Ciprofloxacin and Tetracycline were found to be the most effective antibiotics against the isolated pathogens. These bacterial strains were also able to tolerate 1mg/L of Chlorine. Present study revealed the presence of Chlorine and antibiotic resistant bacteria in DW, which poses a great health risk to the consumers. In conclusion, it is recommended to boil the DW, as it effectively kills all the bacteria in addition to chlorination.

Bakteri patogen pada telepon genggam mahasiswa fakultas kedokteran Universitas Airlangga angkatan 2014

Recently people use mobile phone in the places that have a high density of microorganisms such as in the hospital, in the kitchen, and in the toilet. Some studied stated that mobile phones played a role in transmission of pathogenic bacteria. Brady et al., reported that 9% to 25% of mobile phones were contaminated with pathogenic bacteria. This research was based on experimental laboratory. The samples were mobile phone, swabbed by wet sterile cotton bud and placed on MacConkey Agar plate and Blood Agar plate. The isolated bacteria were checked by Gram stained. Catalase test for Gram-positive cocci bacteria and specific biochemical test for Gram-negative bacilli bacteria were used to determine the genus of the bacteria. The samples were mobile phone belong to 2014-entering-year students of Medical Faculty of Airlangga University. The sampling method was simple random sampling. This experiment found that 100% of the samples were Staphylococcus spp. positive, 3,3% were Shigella spp. positive and 3,3% were Proteus spp. positive. From this experiment could be concluded that mobile phone belong to 2014-entering-year students of Medical Faculty of Airlangga University were contaminated by pathogenic bacteria. The result of this experiment found that Shigella spp. and Proteus spp. were pathogenic bacteria on mobile phone belong to 2014-entering-year students of Medical Faculty of Airlangga University.

Metaproteomics characterization of the alphaproteobacteria microbiome in different developmental and feeding stages of the poultry red mite Dermanyssus gallinae (De Geer, 1778)

ABSTRACTThe poultry red mite (PRM), Dermanyssus gallinae (De Geer, 1778), is a worldwide distributed ectoparasite and considered a major pest affecting the laying hen industry in Europe. Based on available information in other ectoparasites, the mite microbiome might participate in several biological processes and the acquisition, maintenance and transmission of pathogens. However, little is known about the role of PRM as a mechanical carrier or a biological vector in the transmission of pathogenic bacteria. Herein, we used a metaproteomics approach to characterize the alphaproteobacteria in the microbiota of PRM, and variations in its profile with ectoparasite development (nymphs vs. adults) and feeding (unfed vs. fed). The results showed that the bacterial community associated with D. gallinae was mainly composed of environmental and commensal bacteria. Putative symbiotic bacteria of the genera Wolbachia, C. Tokpelaia and Sphingomonas were identified, together with potential pathogenic bacteria of the genera Inquilinus, Neorickettsia and Roseomonas. Significant differences in the composition of alphaproteobacterial microbiota were associated with mite development and feeding, suggesting that bacteria have functional implications in metabolic pathways associated with blood feeding. These results support the use of metaproteomics for the characterization of alphaproteobacteria associated with the D. gallinae microbiota that could provide relevant information for the understanding of mite-host interactions and the development of potential control interventions.Research highlightsMetaproteomics is a valid approach for microbiome characterization in ectoparasites.Alphaproteobacteria putative bacterial symbionts were identified in D. gallinae.Mite development and feeding were related to variations in bacterial community.Potentially pathogenic bacteria were identified in mite microbiota.

Bioburden and transmission of pathogenic bacteria through elevator channel during endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography: application of multiple-locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis for characterization of clonal strains

ABSTRACTObjectives: Endogenous and exogenous infection of the biliary tract could occur during endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography.Methods: Bile samples of patients with hepatobiliary diseases, and swab samples of elevator channel samples of duodenoscope and washing instruments were prepared simultaneously and cultured aerobically and anaerobically. Antimicrobial susceptibility of the most common characterized bacterial species was tested, and their genetic relatedness was analyzed by multiple locus variable number of tandem repeats method.Results: Contamination with Pseudomonas aeruginosa was detected in 38.2% of the elevator channels’ and 26.6% of the bile samples. Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter spp., and Clostridium perfringenes were among other bacterial isolates in the elevator channel swab samples. Highest antimicrobial resistance rate among P. aeruginosa isolates from the bile and swab samples were detected against gentamicin (100% and 73%, respectively), while the lowest one was measured to piperacillin-tazobactam (25% and 0%, respectively). Out of the 27 distinct MLVA profiles, relatedness of P. aeruginosa strains in the bile samples compared with those from the elevators was shown in three series of the samples.Conclusion: Identity of P. aeruginosa strains among the bile and elevator channel samples showed possibility of cross-contamination among patients even at distinct time intervals.Expert opinion: Bacterial infection is considered as main complications of ERCP. Entry of bacteria into the biliary tract via contaminated device and its related instruments and their proliferation in this tissue could cause serious infections. To prevent this side effect, reprocessing of medical equipment via standard cleaning and disinfection procedures are needed. Our results showed incompliance of methods used for endoscope cleaning and disinfection procedure. Although host risk factors, such as sphincterotomy, could increase rate of infection with different types of bacteria, their ability for formation of biofilm and spore, which could help them to resist disinfectants and washing procedures seems to be main cause of persistent colonization and transmission among different patients. New standards for disinfection compared with currently used methods and use of materials to eliminate formation of bacterial microcolonies seem to be necessary to prevent cross-contamination.

Assessment of safety risks associated with handling chicken as based on practices and knowledge of a group of South African consumers

Chicken meat has been identified as one of the most important food vehicles of pathogens, particularly Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. Consumer food safety knowledge and behaviour can substantially contribute to the prevention of foodborne illness. The main objective of this study was to assess the practices and knowledge of a group of South African consumers with respect to handling raw chicken meat, and the associated safety risks with the aim of reducing the risk of foodborne illness at the consumer level. Data were collected through a web-based cross-sectional survey (n = 863). Results showed that a substantial proportion of consumers do not handle raw chicken correctly during purchasing (55%) and thawing (44%); and do not wash their hands correctly before (31%) and after (36%) handling raw chicken. With regard to knowledge on factors affecting the safety of chicken meat, 48% of the respondents believed that refrigeration prevents the growth of bacteria in raw chicken, 93% did not know the maximum safe temperature for refrigerating raw chicken, 26% would refreeze raw chicken once thawed and 45% indicated that chicken that looks and smells fresh could not make them sick. Although the majority of consumers (at least 85%) indicated concerns about the safety risks associated with chicken meat, only 38% were rated as following good practices and 28% as having good knowledge about factors affecting the safety of chicken meat. Overall, consumers aged 40 years and older reported following more safe chicken handling practices and had more knowledge thereof than consumers below 40 years. The findings reflect safety risks related to consumers’ knowledge and practices when handling chicken meat and highlight the need for consumer education. Development of safe chicken handling guidelines to prevent temperature abuse of chicken meat, transmission of pathogenic bacteria and cross-contamination are needed.

Assessment of bacterial carriage on the hands of primary school children in Calabar municipality, Nigeria

BackgroundHand washing with soap and water is a good hand hygiene practice which reduces the chance of infection transmission through hand contact. This study was designed to determine the microbial hand carriage among nursery and primary school children in Calabar Metropolis and to assess the effect of hand washing in the reduction of bacterial hand carriage among these children.MethodsA total of 150 pupils aged 2–13 years were enrolled in the study from both private and public nursery and primary schools. Ethical approval was obtained from the Cross River State Ministry of Health, before the collection of the samples. Informed consent was obtained from the management of the schools and the parents and guardian of the children. A structured questionnaire was administered to the pupils for information on demography, hand hygiene practice, and their awareness on the importance of hand washing. Hand swabs were obtained from the pupils before and after hand washing respectively. Samples were subjected to culture, microscopy, and biochemical analysis. Data obtained in the study were analyzed by Epi-Info CDC, 2012 package.ResultsMales had the highest occurrence of the isolates 82 (62.1%) than females 50 (37.8%). This study recorded 88.0% prevalence of bacterial hand carriage among school children. Staphylococcus aureus was the most common isolate (68.9%) recovered before hand washing followed by Escherichia coli (25.0%). Proteus vulgaris and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were not found on the pupils’ hands after hand washing. There was a significant difference in the bacterial carriage after hand washing between the two soap types (χ2 = 19.9, p = 0.001) with Dettol soap subjects having a lower bacterial carriage (31.2%) than Tetmosol soap subjects (68.8%).ConclusionThe isolated bacteria were potential pathogens in humans. There was a significant reduction in bacterial carriage after hand washing with antibacterial soaps. School children should be educated on the need to wash hands with clean water and soap and dry with clean towels as this will reduce the risk of transmission of pathogenic bacteria orally or into open wounds.

Risk of Infection from Application of Two Types of Pharmaceutical Creams

Introduction: Infection risk from the misuse of multi-dose medicinal products is a seriousproblem which affects final consumer health and may impact on thereputation of pharmaceutical companies adversely.Objectives:The current study aimed to trace the most important contributing factors in the infection transfer through the application of two selected types of medicinal topical creamsfor the treatment of skin disease conditions.Methods: One type of the product that was subjected to the present study is anti-psoriatic while the other is steroidal anti-inflammatory antimicrobial creams that were packed in Aluminum tubes with orifice diameter of 0.173 cm2, approximately. The simulation study – conducted on these topical creams - integrated preservative efficacy test (PET) with dose-response model of infection to demonstrate the probability of infection that could occur due to unintentional transmission of pathogenic bacteria to damaged or injured skin of the patient.Results:The studied model showed that although both products possessed antimicrobial power activity against standard strain microorganisms, yet the critical factor is the hygienic control of hands and fingers during application of the cream on the affected area.Conclusion:The medicinal products itself were little affected by microbial contamination when they were enclosed in their primary packaging materials as was observed by the in-use study. However, the most important part was that portion of the product that was transferred to the patient skin. From the simulation study, it was expected that the situation could be aggravated if the hyiegenic practice was underestimated by hospital staff.

DETECTION OF AEROSOLIZED BACTERIA IN EXPIRED AIR SAMPLES FROM ASIAN ELEPHANTS (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS).

Elephant-mediated transmission of tuberculosis is assumed to be similar to human models, which state close and prolonged contact with an infected individual is required for transmission. Although considered a risk factor for infection, several case studies have reported that close contact with an elephant is not always necessary for transmission, and the role of aerosolized bacteria remains unclear. To investigate aerosol-mediated transmission of pathogenic bacteria from elephants, a method for the detection of aerosols using an adapted sampling system was developed. A commensal bacterium was isolated from the upper respiratory tract of elephants ( Elephas maximus ) and was used as a proxy organism to detect aerosolized droplets in the sampling system. It was found that elephants are capable of producing aerosolized bacterial particles of a size small enough to remain airborne for prolonged periods and penetrate the lower regions of the human respiratory tract.

Potential role of ectoparasites (Zeuxapta seriolae and Caligus lalandei) in the transmission of pathogenic bacteria in yellowtail kingfish Seriola lalandi, inferred from cultivable microbiota and molecular analyses.

Potential role of ectoparasites (Zeuxapta seriolae and Caligus lalandei) in the transmission of pathogenic bacteria in yellowtail kingfish Seriola lalandi, inferred from cultivable microbiota and molecular analyses.

PATHOGENIC BACTERIA ISOLATED FROM COCKROACHES FOUND IN FOOD PREMISES

Cockroaches play an important role in transmission of different diseases either mechanically and biological because they spread and harbor various species of microorganism. This study was carried out to isolate the pathogenic bacteria from external and internal body of cockroaches at food premises. A total of 48 cockroaches, 32 of Periplanetta americana and 16 of Blatta orientalis, were collected at food premises in Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. Medically important bacteria were isolated from external and internal surface by using microbial technique. From the collected Periplanetta americana and Blatta orientalis, E.coli,Salmonella species, Shigella species, and Staphylococcus were isolated and identified in their selective media such as nutrient agar, MacConkey agar, and Xylone Lysine Deoxycholate (XLD) agar using microbial technique. The data obtained from the study emphasized that cockroaches may play an important role in the transmission of pathogenic bacteria to human. The presence of cockroaches at food premises maybe due to unhygienic environment. Thus it may pose as a safety issue as they may carries of pathogenic microorganisms that can threaten the health of individuals.

Surface modification of food processing and handling gloves for enhanced food safety and hygiene

Gloves made of materials such as latex, nitrile, and polyethylene are the most common types of protective equipment used to prevent cross-contamination and transmission of pathogenic bacteria in the food industry. In this study, we report a surface modification approach involving “fluorinated silica nanoparticles” (FSNs) to improve the protective ability against bacterial contamination of disposable glove surfaces. The bacterial antiadhesive (antifouling) properties of the modified gloves were evaluated with Salmonella Typhimurium LT2 and Staphylococcus aureus at bacterial concentrations of 8.6–9.0 log CFU/mL through the dip-inoculation approach. Bacterial attachment to glove surfaces were enumerated by the pour plating method as well as direct counting via scanning electron microscopy. The bacterial populations of S. Typhimurium LT2 and S. aureus on FSN-coated latex, nitrile and polyethylene gloves was reduced by 1–2 log units in comparison to bare gloves, which already reduce the bacterial attachment to some extent.

A Search for Identifying Aerobic Bacteria by Culture and Multiplex PCR in Market Eggs Causing Gastroenteritis and Enteric Fever in Bangladesh

To observe the chance of possible transmission of pathogenic bacteria from market egg to the community, potential pathogenic aerobic bacteria were detected from market eggs by culture and multiplex PCR. Egg shells and egg contents of 150 eggs collected from different markets of Dhaka city were tested. Total 145 (96.67%) egg shells yielded growth of bacteria, 23 (15.86%) of them were ESBL producers. Esch. coli was the most common (26.67%) bacteria and 7 (4.67%) were Salmonella spp. Other bacteria were Klebsiella pneumoniae (6.67%), Proteus vulgaris (3.33%), Proteus mirabilis (2%), Providencia rettgeri (15.33%), Providencia alkalifaciens (1.33%), Acinetobacter baumanii (8.67%), Citrobacter freundii (10%), Enterobacter aerogenes (6.67%) Klebsiella oxytoca (4.67%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (6.67%). By PCR, 15 (10%) Salmonella spp. was identified from egg shells and the most common serotype was Salmonella Enteritidis (53.33%). No bacteria were detected from egg contents. Most of the bacteria were sensitive to imipenem and colistin. All Salmonella serotypes were sensitive to chloramphenicol, imipenem, gentamicin, ciprofloxacin and ceftriaxone. In conclusion, it can be said that market eggs may be an important source of infection of many gram negative bacteria including Salmonella to the community.

Potential role of bacteria packaging by protozoa in the persistence and transmission of pathogenic bacteria

Many pathogenic bacteria live in close association with protozoa. These unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms are ubiquitous in various environments. A number of protozoa such as amoebae and ciliates ingest pathogenic bacteria, package them usually in membrane structures, and then release them into the environment. Packaged bacteria are more resistant to various stresses and are more apt to survive than free bacteria. New evidence indicates that protozoa and not bacteria control the packaging process. It is possible that packaging is more common than suspected and may play a major role in the persistence and transmission of pathogenic bacteria. To confirm the role of packaging in the propagation of infections, it is vital that the molecular mechanisms governing the packaging of bacteria by protozoa be identified as well as elements related to the ecology of this process in order to determine whether packaging acts as a Trojan Horse.

MANAGEMENT OF PREGNANT PATIENTS IN DENTAL PRACTICE

ABSTRACT Pregnancy is a unique period in a woman's lifetime. Good oral health during pregnancy is important to the overall health of both the expectant mother and her baby. Therefore, it is important to maintain good oral health during pregnancy because it has the potential to reduce the transmission of pathogenic bacteria from mothers to their children. Dental care is safe for the pregnant patient and can prevent long term health problems for both mother and child. During pregnancy dental treatment may be modified but need not be withheld, provided that the risk assessment is made properly for both the patient and the fetus. Oral changes in the mouth are due to the alteration in the levels of estrogen and progesterone. This variation in the female sex hormones causes an increase in oral vasculature permeability and decrease in the host immunity, thus making the pregnant woman more prone to oral infections. Although pregnancy is not a contraindication to dental treatments, the clinician should consult with the patient's physician to clarify individual treatment issues. When prescribing medication during pregnancy, the main concern is the risk of teratogenesis, because drugs cross the placenta by simple diffusion. Drugs are administered during pregnancy only when they are essential for the pregnant woman's well-being, and the drug of choice should always be the one that is the least toxic. Prescribing of systemic drugs of any kind ideally should be performed after consultation with the general medical practitioner or obstetrician.