Foot-and-mouth Disease Transmission Research Articles

Foot-and-mouth disease dynamics in multi-species livestock systems at the interface of African protected areas

Many pathogens have the capacity to infect multiple hosts. Multi-species epidemiological systems are characterized by populations that interact and perform different functions in pathogen transmission and maintenance. This study investigated the epidemiological dynamics of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus in cattle and goats and their respective functions in disease circulation within sympatric livestock populations adjacent to wildlife areas in Zimbabwe. Through year-long longitudinal serological monitoring, the spatial distributions of FMD antibodies and associated risk factors were examined. The results revealed significantly greater FMDV seroprevalence in cattle than in goats, with serostatus in cattle being influenced by proximity to wildlife areas. In contrast, goats presented a lower seroprevalence, less variation among age groups, and no association with proximity to protected areas. On the other hand, clustering analysis indicated the absence of clustering of seropositive individuals at the herd scale, suggesting low levels of virus transmission between animals belonging to the same herd in both species. These findings highlight the significance of context-dependent interactions among hosts, particularly with wildlife. This study emphasizes the necessity of comprehensive surveillance and strain identification across multiple sympatric species, both wild and domestic, for the effective management of multi-host pathogens. In conclusion, this research contributes to understanding the complex dynamics of FMD transmission in rural areas in Zimbabwe and emphasizes the importance of tailored surveillance strategies in diverse ecological settings.

Sero-Prevalence of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Cattle in Selected Districts of Jimma Zone, South-Western Ethiopia.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is highly contagious and results in a high economic loss in the world. A cross-sectional study was conducted from December 2021 to June 2022 in three selected districts to determine the sero-prevalence of FMD. A total of 384 cattle sera samples were collected and tested for antibodies against FMD virus using FMD NSP c-ELISA. The overall sero-prevalence of 25.3% was determined. Sero-prevalence of 31.0%, 32.37% and 4.5% was seen in the districts. Higher sero-prevalence was observed in Limmu Seka, and the disease was statistically significant in both Limmu Kosa and Limmu Seka districts (p < 0.05). Higher sero-prevalence was seen at Ambabesa Sadeka Peasant Association (42.86%). However, except Ambabesa Sadeka peasant association (PA), there was no statistically significant association (p > 0.05) of FMD occurrence among the nine PAs. Higher sero-prevalence was recorded in females (33.65%), old age (39.1%), poor body condition (43.0%) and herd size (43.1%). Therefore, sex, age, body condition of the animals and herd size showed significant association (p < 0.05) in the occurrence of FMD in the study areas. Purchased animals were highly infected (56.4%), and there was also a statistically significant association in the origin of the animals (p < 0.05). Overall, FMD is an economically important disease in the study areas. Further studies are warranted to characterize FMD virus serotypes in the areas and investigation in wildlife and small ruminants is needed to determine their roles in FMD virus maintenance and transmission.

Risk Assessment and Prevention of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Transmission from Laos to China.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is classified as a Class I animal disease in China and listed as one of the notifiable animal diseases by the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH). It significantly impacts the safe production of livestock and the trade of animals and related products. China's Yunnan Province shares a 710 km border with Laos, with frequent cross-border trade, and the cross-border flow of animals and related products occurs from time to time. In order to prevent the introduction of FMD from the border areas of Laos into China, this study conducted an assessment of the entry, exposure, and consequences of FMD transmission. The findings revealed a "high" risk in terms of entry assessment, a "medium" risk in exposure assessment, and a "high" risk in the consequence assessment. Based on these assessments, the overall risk level for the introduction of FMD from Laos into China is determined to be "high". Therefore, it is recommended that management measures are implemented, such as restricting animal movement across borders and strengthening inspection procedures for animals entering China, to effectively prevent FMD introduction from Laos.

Reproductive status of beef cows after foot and mouth disease (FMD) in East Java

The spread of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) has significantly declined in the population. FMD is an infectious disease that is susceptible to even-toed ungulates. This study examines beef cattle’s post-FMD reproductive performance in East Java, Indonesia. The implementation of the research was carried out from July to August 2023 in East Java Province. Conducted from July to August 2023, the study utilized quantitative methods with a survey-based approach, purposive sampling, and a combination of primary and secondary data collection. The rapid transmission of FMD has caused substantial economic losses. Key research parameters included the type of beef cattle, vaccination history, return to estrus, recovery duration from FMD, pregnancy rates, age, body condition score (BCS), feed types, and reproductive disorders post-FMD. Results showed that cattle breeds affected ranged from 3% to 49%, recovery duration varied from 12% to 58%, and vaccination coverage was between 16% and 33%. The return to estrus occurred in 16% to 44% of cattle, with pregnancy rates between 30% and 70%. Cattle age ranged from 24% to 76%, BCS ranged from 6% to 64%, and feed type varied from 7% to 57%. Regarding reproductive disorders, 56% of cows showed no issues, while 21% exhibited ovarian hypofunction, 12% had endometritis, 4% faced delayed puberty, 3% had follicular cysts, and 1% suffered from placental retention or atrophy. The reproductive performance of post-FMD beef cattle in East Java was generally favorable, though some challenges persisted. A prolonged estrus cycle, likely caused by extended recovery periods and reduced feed intake during FMD infection, led to decreased BCS and hormone imbalances. In addition to health impacts, FMD led to lower farmer incomes, inhibited growth in heifers, and reduced employment opportunities in the livestock sector.

Modeling foot-and-mouth disease dissemination in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil and evaluating the effectiveness of control measures.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) affects multiple food-animal species and spreads rapidly among ungulate populations, posing significant challenges for disease control. Understanding the dynamics of FMD transmission and evaluating the effectiveness of control measures are critical for mitigating its impact. This study introduces a multiscale compartmental stochastic model to simulate FMD spread and assess countermeasures. We developed a model that integrates population dynamics, including births, deaths, and species-specific transmission dynamics, at both the between-farm and within-farm levels. Four scenarios were created to evaluate different control strategies: the base scenario included vaccinating 20 farms and depopulating four infected farms, while alternative scenarios increased vaccination and depopulation capacities or omitted vaccination altogether. Our simulations showed that bovines were the most frequently infected species, followed by swine and small ruminants. After 10 days of initial spread, the number of infected farms ranged from 1 to 123, with 90.12% of simulations resulting in fewer than 50 infected farms. Most secondary spread occurred within a 25 km radius. An early response to control actions significantly reduced the time spent managing outbreaks, and increasing daily depopulation and vaccination capacities further enhanced control efforts. Emergency vaccination effectively reduced the magnitude and duration of outbreaks, while increasing depopulation without vaccination also eliminated outbreaks. These findings highlight the importance of rapid response and capacity scaling in controlling FMD outbreaks, providing valuable insights for future decision-making processes in disease management.

PENYAKIT MULUT DAN KUKU DI INDONESIA DANKEBIJAKAN PERDAGANGAN INTERNATIONAL;APA YANG DAPAT DIPELAJARI DARI WABAH TERAKHIR?

The statement letter from the World Health Agency "Office Internationale Des Epizoties (OIE)," started in OIE Resolution Number XI in 1990, has been a new independence for Indonesia to rebuild the livestock and animal health sector. However, the outbreak of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in mid-May 2022 in Indonesia and the Central Asian country of Kazakhstan in early January 2022 proves that the importance of the role and influence of international trade, both formal and informal trade, directly or indirectly on government policies in exporting animals and its products to prevent the spread of FMD disease through commodity trading. In addition, the lack of supervision of trade in animal commodities and animal products from export and import activities will impact the emergence of other new infectious diseases that will occur in the future. Therefore, world health organizations, international trade organizations, and governments must review policies related to international trade to prevent repeated transmission and other new diseases in the future by evaluating the causes of FMD transmission in countries declared free of FMD, such as Indonesia. This paper attempts to analyze this problem through the history of FMD in Indonesia and the FMD-free zone from the perspective of international trade. This paper can provide information and contribute to the future prevention of FMD through international trade in Indonesia.

Epidemiology and Transmission of Foot and Mouth Disease among Small Ruminants – A Review

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral infection that affects cloven-hoofed animals, including small ruminants such as sheep and goats. FMD causes severe economic losses due to reduced productivity, trade restrictions, and control measures. The epidemiology and transmission of FMD among small ruminants are influenced by various factors, such as the virus strain, the host species, the environmental conditions, and the animal management practices. This paper reviews the current knowledge on the epidemiology and transmission of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) among small ruminants. It also examines the global distribution and prevalence of FMD in small ruminants, the clinical signs and lesions of FMD in small ruminants, the role of small ruminants in the maintenance and spread of FMD, the transmission routes and risk factors of FMD in small ruminants, and the implications of FMD in small ruminants for disease control and eradication. The paper also identifies the knowledge gaps and research priorities for improving the understanding and management of FMD in small ruminants.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus dynamics in border areas of Pakistan with Afghanistan.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease that impacts cloven-hoofed animals globally. The illegal trade of livestock between the border regions of Pakistan and Afghanistan can contribute to the spread of this disease. This study focuses on investigating the outbreaks of FMD that occurred in this area from June 2020 to May 2021. RESULTS: A total of 233 epithelial tissue samples were collected, and 77% were found positive for FMDV through an antigen-detection by ELISA and molecular conformation through RT-PCR. The study found three serotypes of FMDV dominating in the border area of Pakistan with Afghanistan: O, A, and Asia-1. The outbreak activity was peaked between August/September followed by July/October 2020. Phylogenetic analysis conducted using the VP1 region sequence showed that serotype O isolates belonged to the Middle East-South Asia (ME-SA) topotype, PanAsia-2 lineage, and ANT-10 sub-lineage, while serotype Asia-1 isolates belonged to a novel lineage BD-18.The highest prevalence of serotype O of FMDV was found in cattle and buffalo of 1-2year age group, while the highest outbreak ratio of serotype O was recorded in goats of 0-1year age group and sheep of > 2year age group. The serotype O was more prevalent in male than female sheep. The type A was more prevalent in females of sheep and goats than their corresponding males. The serotype Asia-1 was more prevalent in females of cattle and sheep than their corresponding males. The outbreak epidemiology of FMD varied significantly between various regions, months of study, animal species, age groups, and gender. The study found that FMD outbreaks in the border area of Pakistan and Afghanistan were diverse and complicated, and that different types of FMDV were circulating. The study recommended effective actions to stop FMD transmission in this area.

PENYULUHAN KESEHATAN HEWAN DI DESA CAMPLONG II, KECAMATAN FATULEU, KABUPATEN KUPANG, PROVINSI NUSA TENGGARA TIMUR

The outbreak of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) and African Swine Fever (ASF) in Indonesia needs to be counteracted by providing education and increasing awareness to the farming community about the importance of animal health and its impact on the economy and human health. Apart from that, the public also needs to be educated about the transmission and prevention of FMD, which is still free in NTT, and ASF disease, which is currently being eradicated. Members of the Telekomunit Farmers Group, the Sanam Tuan Farmers Group, the Sabu Bani Farmers Group, and the Setetes Madu Farmers Group in Camplong II Village, Fatuleu District, Kupang Regency, Nusa Province East Southeast are being helped through communication and education as part of this service activity. The goal is to make them more aware of the threat of PMK and ASF. In this activity, the community was also educated about rabies, which has become an epidemic in TTS, one of the areas on the island of Timor, and has been designated as an extraordinary rabies event.

Spatiotemporal analysis of foot and mouth disease outbreaks in cattle and small ruminants in Türkiye between 2010 and 2019.

Determining the dynamics associated with foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks is important for being able to develop effective strategic plans against the disease. In this direction, spatiotemporal analysis of FMD virus (FMDV) epidemic data that occurred in Türkiye between 2010 and 2019 was carried out. Spatiotemporal analysis was performed by the space-time scan statistic using data from a total of 7,796 FMD outbreaks. Standard deviational ellipse analysis (SDE) was performed to analyse the directional trend of FMD. Five, six, and three significant and high-risk clusters were identified by the space-time cluster analysis for serotypes A, O, and Asia-1, respectively. The SDE analysis indicated that direction of FMD transmission was northeast to southwest. A significant decrease in the number of outbreaks and cases were observed between 2014 and 2019 compared to 2010-2013 (p = 0.010). Most of the serotype A, serotype O, and serotype Asia-1 associated FMD outbreaks were observed during the dry season (April to September). Among FMD cases, cattle and small ruminants accounted for 80.75% (180,932 cases) and 19.25% (43,116 cases), respectively. Among the serotypes detected in the cases, the most frequently detected serotype was serotype O (50.84%), followed by serotypes A (35.67%) and Asia-1 (13.49%). The results obtained in this study may contribute to when and where control programs could be implemented more efficiently for the prevention and control of FMD. Developing risk-defined regional control plans by taking into account the current livestock production including uncontrolled animal movements in border regions, rural livestock, livestock trade between provinces are recommended.

Laboratory testing and on-site storage are successful at mitigating the risk of release of foot-and-mouth disease virus via production of bull semen in the USA.

Thousands of frozen bovine semen doses are produced daily in the US for domestic use. An incursion of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in the country would pose strong challenges to the movements of animals and animal products between premises. Secure supply plans require an estimation of the risk associated with target commodities and the effectiveness of mitigation measures. This study presents the results of a quantitative assessment of the risk of release of FMD virus from five of the largest commercial bull studs in the US via contaminated frozen processed semen. The methodology from a previous study was adapted to better fit the US production system and includes more recent data. Two models were combined, a deterministic compartmental model of FMD transmission and a stochastic risk assessment model. The compartmental model simulated an FMD outbreak within a collection facility, following the introduction of a latent-infected bull. The risk of release was defined as the annual likelihood of releasing at least one frozen semen batch, defined as the total amount of semen collected from a single bull on a given collection day, containing viable FMD virus. A scenario tree was built using nine steps leading from the collection to the release of a contaminated batch from a given facility. The first step, the annual probability of an FMD outbreak in a given facility, was modeled using an empirical distribution fitted to incidence data predicted by five models published between 2012 and 2022. An extra step was added to the previously published risk pathway, to account for routine serological or virological surveillance within facilities. The results showed that the mitigation measures included in the assessment were effective at reducing the risk of release. The median annual risk of release from the five facilities was estimated at less than 2 in 10 billion (1.5 x 10-10) in the scenario including a 30-day storage, routine genome detection assays performed every two weeks and RT-PCR testing of the semen. In this scenario, there was a 95% chance that the risk of release would be lower than 0.00041. This work provides strong support to the industry for improving their response plans to an incursion of FMD virus in the US.

Bovine Sero- surveillance of Foot- and – Mouth Disease in Four States in Nigeria

Animals with cloven hooves are susceptible to highly contagious foot and mouth disease (FMD). FMD epidemics have affected several underdeveloped countries, including Nigeria. The migration of pastoralist animals has been linked to FMD transmission in Nigeria, and surveillance is essential for assessing the threat and impact of FMD, as well as the emergence of PCP-FMD. Here, we report the sero-surveillance of FMD in cattle in four states in Nigeria in 2019. Sera collected from four states (Anambra, Enugu, Imo, and Katsina) were tested for antibodies against FMD non-structural protein (NSP), with an overall prevalence of 45%. Significantly higher seroprevalence was recorded in Imo (63%), followed by Kastina (56%), Anambra (29%), and Enugu (6%). An overall serotype-specific prevalence of 81%, 35 %, 50 %, and 35% was recorded for serotypes O, A, 50% for SAT 2, and SAT 1, respectively. Furthermore, circulating antibodies against four serotypes of FMDV were found in 16% of sera samples, 20% had antibodies against three circulating serotypes, 33% had antibodies against two serotypes, and 25% showed exposure to only one serotype, indicating exposure to multiple FMD serotypes. These findings demonstrate the presence of FMDV antibodies in cattle across all surveyed states, which may be related to the presence of multiple FMDV serotypes (O, A, SAT1and SAT2) and concurrent co-infection in these states. Therefore, there is a need for the continuous surveillance of FMD in Nigeria. This will help ascertain the burden of the disease and enable the implementation of necessary control measures to stop its potential transmission and further spread. This sero-surveillance data expands our understanding of the FMD situation in Nigeria and is crucial for determining the country’s FMD risk in order to advance the PCP-FMD.

Foot and Mouth Disease in Indonesia and International Trade Policy; What Can Be Learnt from The Recent Outbreak?

The statement letter from the World Health Agency "Office Internationale Des Epizoties (OIE)," started in OIE Resolution Number XI in 1990, has been a new independence for Indonesia to rebuild the livestock and animal health sector. However, the outbreak of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in mid-May 2022 in Indonesia and the Central Asian country of Kazakhstan in early January 2022 proves that the importance of the role and influence of international trade, both formal and informal trade, directly or indirectly on government policies in exporting animals and its products to prevent the spread of FMD disease through commodity trading. In addition, the lack of supervision of trade in animal commodities and animal products from export and import activities will impact the emergence of other new infectious diseases that will occur in the future. Therefore, world health organizations, international trade organizations, and governments must review policies related to international trade to prevent repeated transmission and other new diseases in the future by evaluating the causes of FMD transmission in countries declared free of FMD, such as Indonesia. This paper attempts to analyze this problem through the history of FMD in Indonesia and the FMD-free zone from the perspective of international trade. This paper can provide information and contribute to the future prevention of FMD through international trade in Indonesia.

Seroprevalence of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in Small Ruminants (Sheep and Goat) Slaughtered in Karu Abbatoir, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria.

Foot and Mouth Disease is a contagious viral disease of cattle and sheep, causing ulceration of the hoofs and around the mouth. The role of small ruminants in FMD epidemiology is still poorly understood in Nigeria. The aim of the study is to determine the prevalence of Foot and Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) antibodies in sheep and goats slaughtered in Karu abattoir. One hundred and twenty (120) sera each were collected from both sheep and goats and screened for FMDV antibodies using 3ABC ELISA. The result showed that 89 (74.2) of the sheep sera screened were positive for FMDV antibodies whereas 103 (85.8) of the goat sera were positive. It was more prevalent in goats. The finding indicates a characteristic maintenance host nature for FMD virus in small ruminants without apparent clinical signs. This study suggested an on-going infection in small ruminant co-herding with cattle as a risk factor. This risk factor may enhance FMD transmission associated with increased movement of infected live animals from endemic states to markets and abattoirs following livestock trade activities. FMD is a Transboundary Animal Disease (TAD) affecting livestock production and disrupting regional and international trade in animals and animal products. The detection of FMD antibodies in sheep and goats slaughtered in Karu abattoir suggests small ruminants play important roles in the epidemiology of Foot and Mouth Disease in Nigeria. Good tracking of origin and proper surveillance system for FMD in animals brought into the abbatoir to be slaughtered are recommended for a comprehensive prevention and control of the disease.

Estimating the transmission parameters of foot-and-mouth disease in Vietnam: A spatial-dynamic kernel-based model with outbreak and host data

Estimating the transmission parameters of foot-and-mouth disease in Vietnam: A spatial-dynamic kernel-based model with outbreak and host data

A cost-benefit analysis of Vietnam’s 2006–2010 foot-and-mouth disease control program

A cost-benefit analysis of Vietnam’s 2006–2010 foot-and-mouth disease control program

Foot and Mouth Disease in Cameroon: A Systematic Review to Support its Progressive Control

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an infectious viral transboundary disease of even-toed animals, caused by the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). The objective of this paper is to provide reviewed data on the epidemiology, risks, control and the existing gaps on FMD in Cameroon from 1990 to 2021 to support its progressive control. Relevant and available documents (n = 45) on FMD in Cameroon such as peer-reviewed papers (n = 27), dissertations (n = 11), conferences (n = 5) and technical reports (n = 2) were used. Studies on the molecular and serological epidemiology, the role of carrier/mobile animals, the evaluation of immune-cross protection between serotypes and the quantification of serotype-specific transmission parameters using mathematical models have been discussed. The environmental drivers of FMD in cattle markets, abattoir and herd-level, as well as risk factors such as husbandry practices, communal grazing, regional/international livestock trading system, transhumance and fomites, are presented. As international borders remain porous with poor FMD monitoring infrastructure at veterinary checkpoints in a country with no candidate vaccine, vaccination program and commercial vaccines available, farmers are left with no option other than to manage the disease with traditional formulations and veterinary pharmaceuticals mostly antibiotics. Tri-Solfen® (TS), a wound dressing formulation was efficient in managing FMD in Cameroon. The current gaps in FMD knowledge in Cameroon are presented. There is a need for a comprehensive epidemiological study in the major cattle rearing regions of Cameroon. A regional study to identify all the risk factors for the transmission of FMD is required. A socio-economic impact study of FMD is required in Cameroon.

Foot-and-mouth disease in Cameroon: A systematic review to support its progressive control

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an infectious viral transboundary disease of even-toed animals, caused by the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). The objective of this paper is to provide reviewed data on the epidemiology, risks, control and the existing gaps on FMD in Cameroon from 1990 to 2021 to support its progressive control. Relevant and available documents (n=45) on FMD in Cameroon such as peer-reviewed papers (n=27), dissertations (n=11), conferences (n=5) and technical reports (n=2) were used. Studies on the molecular and serological epidemiology, the role of carrier/mobile animals, the evaluation of immune-cross protection between serotypes and the quantification of serotype-specific transmission parameters using mathematical models have been discussed. The environmental drivers of FMD in cattle markets, abattoir and herd-level, as well as risk factors such as husbandry practices, communal grazing, regional/international livestock trading system, transhumance and fomites, are presented. As international borders remain porous with poor FMD monitoring infrastructure at veterinary checkpoints in a country with no candidate vaccine, vaccination program and commercial vaccines available, farmers are left with no option other than to manage the disease with traditional formulations and veterinary pharmaceuticals mostly antibiotics. Tri-Solfen® (TS), a wound dressing formulation was efficient in managing FMD in Cameroon. The current gaps in FMD knowledge in Cameroon are presented. There is a need for a comprehensive epidemiological study in the major cattle rearing regions of Cameroon. A regional study to identify all the risk factors for the transmission of FMD is required. A socio-economic impact study of FMD is required in Cameroon.

FMD virus spillover from domestic livestock caused outbreak in captive wild ungulates: First report from Pakistan

FMD virus spillover from domestic livestock caused outbreak in captive wild ungulates: First report from Pakistan

Parameterization of the durations of phases of foot-and-mouth disease in pigs

Parameterization of the durations of phases of foot-and-mouth disease in pigs