Trait Emotion Regulation Research Articles

Psychological mechanisms and neural correlates of trait mindfulness in emotion regulation: Testing a novel approach to the monitor and acceptance theory

BackgroundThe ongoing mental health crisis warrants investigations to understand why trait mindfulness is associated with beneficial mental health outcomes. This study examined attention monitoring and acceptance as psychological mechanisms underlying the relationship between trait mindfulness and emotion regulation and connectivity between the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) as a potential neural mechanism. MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted with 501 adult participants (age range: 17–79, M = 31, SD = 11.3) representing the general population. To assess emotion regulation and trait mindfulness, participants completed the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) and Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ). Resting-state functional MRI was acquired in a subsample of 20 participants to explore the role of dlPFC-PCC functional connectivity. ResultsHigher levels of acceptance, as measured using the Non-judging and Non-reactivity subscales of the FFMQ, were significantly associated with fewer overall emotion regulation difficulties and predicted all emotion regulation subscales. In contrast, higher levels of attention monitoring, measured using the Observe subscale, predicted only three DERS subscales and with mixed effects: higher emotional awareness and clarity, but greater difficulties in goal-directed behaviour. The interaction between monitoring and acceptance was not significant, and no correlation was found between these variables and dlPFC-PCC functional connectivity. ConclusionsThese findings challenge previous theories that argue that attention monitoring is crucial for effective emotion regulation. Instead, we conclude that acceptance is the key psychological mechanism, indicating that the traditional focus on attention monitoring in mindfulness training may be less effective than a primary emphasis on acceptance. This study provides a critical review of past research, highlighting issues with operationalising acceptance, and offers recommendations for future studies and practical implications for developing mindfulness interventions.

Impact of state and trait emotion regulation on daily emotional exhaustion among Korean school counsellors.

School counsellors in South Korea face significant emotional exhaustion due to their challenging occupational environment. Previous studies have shown that cognitive reappraisal (CR) reduces emotional exhaustion, whereas expressive suppression (ES) increases it. However, these findings predominantly rely on trait questionnaires within cross-sectional approaches, overlooking the dynamic nature of emotion regulation (ER) strategy selection. Individuals may choose strategies that deviate from their general tendencies based on situational demands. There is limited empirical knowledge regarding the interaction between trait and state regulation strategies and their influence on exhaustion. Utilizing the strategy-situation fit hypothesis, this study examines the context-specific effects of ER strategies, considering both situational contexts and individual response tendencies. A multilevel analysis was performed to examine the influence of state and trait ER strategies on daily emotional exhaustion. A daily diary study was conducted for 5days with 111 Korean school counsellors. Daily CR was associated with lower daily exhaustion and daily ES predicted higher daily exhaustion. Contrastingly, none of the trait ER strategies had an impact on daily exhaustion, but the trait level of both strategies significantly moderated the relationship between daily CR and exhaustion. The positive impact of daily CR was more pronounced in school counsellors who often utilized suppression strategies, and this impact was also evident in trait reappraisal. Re-evaluating daily emotions instead of suppressing them may assist in coping with emotional exhaustion caused by work. The effectiveness of these strategies may vary based on an individual's inclination to regulate emotions as state and trait. ER may aid in implementing preventive interventions for school counsellors experiencing emotional exhaustion.

Polyvictimization and emotion regulation in daily life: An ecological momentary assessment study of young adults.

Individuals who experience polyvictimization, or victimization across multiple life contexts, show particularly severe outcomes across a range of mental health diagnoses, potentially related to difficulties in regulating emotion. However, prior research has been limited by reliance on cross-sectional designs and retrospective trait measures of emotion regulation. The present study used ecological momentary assessment to test associations between polyvictimization and emotion regulation in daily life. After completing a baseline survey assessing trauma exposure, mental health symptoms, and trait emotion regulation, undergraduates (N = 122) completed smartphone surveys assessing state emotion regulation four times per day for 14 days. Low correspondence was observed between trait and state measures of emotion regulation. After accounting for baseline mental health symptoms, polyvictimization independently predicted lower scores on an aggregative measure of putatively adaptive strategies (i.e., reappraisal, acceptance, problem solving) in daily life. However, polyvictimization did not predict aggregate scores of putatively maladaptive strategies (i.e., cognitive and expressive suppression, rumination, impulsive behavior, avoidance). Baseline depression and posttraumatic stress predicted higher use of putatively maladaptive strategies. Results suggest polyvictimization may be associated with less use of adaptive emotion regulation in daily life, whereas mental health symptoms may be associated with more use of maladaptive strategies. These findings highlight the utility of experience sampling approaches for increasing insight into emotion regulation difficulties among trauma survivors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The Association of Emotion Regulation and Somatic Symptoms.

People with functional somatic symptoms have difficulties in various stages of the emotion regulation (ER) process. As an adaptive and flexible use of ER strategies is a core tenet of emotional health, having difficulties in this area is often assumed to be the key mechanism behind functional somatic symptoms. Following a dimensional population-based sampling approach, we investigated ER abilities across a broad range of people and tested possible associations with somatic symptom reporting, habitual ER use, and various subclinical constructs (such as alexithymia and anxiety). In a sample of N = 254 persons, somatic symptom distress (Patient Health Questionnaire-15, Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology somatoform spectrum), trait ER facets (Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, Emotion Reactivity Scale), and the ER abilities (suppression and reappraisal) were assessed. Correlations (frequentist and Bayesian), ANOVAs, and structural equation models were used to analyze the data. Correlational and structural equation model analyses revealed that general symptom severity (both on the somatoform Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology and Patient Health Questionnaire-15) was not significantly associated with ER effectiveness, general arousal, or general valence. The sensory components of pain symptoms ( r = -0.708, p = .023) and health anxiety ( r = -0.443, p = .028) were significantly negatively associated with effective ER. ER effectiveness seems independent of general somatic symptom distress. We make recommendations for clinical interventions in light of these complex findings.

Trait Anxiety, Emotion Regulation, and Metacognitive Beliefs: An Observational Study Incorporating Separate Network and Correlation Analyses to Examine Associations with Executive Functions and Academic Achievement.

Trait anxiety, emotion regulation strategies, and metacognitive beliefs influence executive functions (EFs) and academic achievement. This study examines their interplay and impact on academic success. In total, 275 adolescents (10-17 years) and parents completed an online questionnaire assessing trait anxiety, emotion regulation strategies, metacognition, parent-reported behaviors related to executive functioning, and overall school average. Preliminary analyses confirmed consistency with the existing literature for each variable and their interaction. Furthermore, we conducted a network analysis among the main variables. This analysis supports the need to pay more attention to reflective variables-maladaptive emotion regulation strategies and metacognitive beliefs about worry-when studying trait anxiety. These variables were linked to problematic executive functioning in adolescents, and the latter was negatively linked to academic achievement. This study offers innovative insights by investigating relationships less explored in the scientific literature. It reveals high and significant correlations between metacognitive beliefs, maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, and trait anxiety (r > 0.500, p < 0.001) but also between these variables and both executive functioning and academic achievement. These findings offer new perspectives for research and underscore the importance of holistically examining the psychological factors related to academic success.

Looming Cognitive Style: How It Mediates the Association of Harm Avoidance with Trait and State Emotion Regulation Difficulties

Looming Cognitive Style: How It Mediates the Association of Harm Avoidance with Trait and State Emotion Regulation Difficulties

Emotion dysregulation and reward responsiveness as predictors of autonomic reactivity to an infant cry task among substance-using pregnant and postpartum women.

Maternal substance use may interfere with optimal parenting, lowering maternal responsiveness during interactions with their children. Previous work has identified maternal autonomic nervous system (ANS) reactivity to parenting-relevant stressors as a promising indicator of real-world parenting behaviors. However, less is known about the extent to which individual differences in emotion dysregulation and reward processing, two mechanisms of substance use, relate to maternal ANS reactivity in substance-using populations. The current study examined associations among emotion dysregulation, reward responsiveness, and ANS reactivity to an infant cry task among 77 low-income and substance-using women who were either pregnant (n=63) or postpartum (n=14). Two indicators of ANS functioning were collected during a 9min computerized infant cry task (Crybaby task): respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) and pre-ejection period. Mothers also completed self-reported measures of emotion dysregulation and reward responsiveness. Analyses revealed that trait emotion regulation was associated with RSA reactivity to the Crybaby task, such that greater emotion dysregulation was associated with greater RSA reduction during the infant cry task than lower emotion dysregulation. Reward responsiveness was not significantly associated with either indicator of ANS reactivity to the task. Findings revealed distinct patterns of associations linking emotion dysregulation with ANS reactivity during a parenting-related computerized task, suggesting that emotion regulation may be a key intervention target for substance-using mothers.

Tension and disordered eating behaviors in the daily lives of adolescents and young adults from the general population: Associations and moderating role of trait emotion regulation.

Experiences of tension and difficulties in emotion regulation have been linked to eating pathology in clinical samples and are targeted in respective treatment approaches. The present study aimed to investigate the impact of tension on engagement in disordered eating behaviors (DEBs) and potential moderating effects of trait emotion regulation in young people from the general population. A subsample of 971 adolescents and young adults from an epidemiological cohort study reported on levels of tension and four different DEBs (skipping eating, restrained eating, eating large amounts of food, loss-of-control-eating) via ecological momentary assessment (EMA), as well as on trait emotion regulation via questionnaire. In multilevel models, momentary tension did not predict levels of subsequent DEBs. However, higher average levels of tension across the EMA period predicted higher levels of all DEBs. No interactions with emotion regulation emerged. Individuals experiencing overall higher levels of tension appear to be more prone to engaging in DEBs.

Age-related reductions in arousal-enhanced memory are moderated by trait emotion regulation

Emotional arousal is known to enhance episodic memory in young adults. However, compared to valence, little is known about how healthy aging impacts arousal-enhanced memory effects. Furthermore, while emotion regulation is believed to improve with age, it is unclear how individual differences in emotion regulation influence arousal-enhanced memory. In this large-scale online study, we investigated the impact of age and individual differences in emotion regulation on arousal-enhanced memory. During encoding, participants made arousal ratings about negative, neutral, and positive images, and we compared their subsequent memory of high and low-arousal images. We found the impact of emotional arousal on memory was reduced with age, especially for older adults who habitually suppress their emotions. Our findings show that arousal-related memory benefits are reduced with advancing age, and that individual differences in habitual usage of emotion regulation impact these age-related alterations.

Individual differences in peace of mind reflect adaptive emotion regulation

Well-being consists of several different dimensions, such as hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. However, peace of mind (PoM)—an aspect of well-being characterized by internal peace and harmony—has only recently begun to receive attention. It has been shown that PoM predicts important outcomes, such as depression and anxiety. An open question is what underlies individual differences in PoM. One important factor may be emotion regulation. However, to date, no studies have been conducted on PoM and emotion regulation. Here, we investigated the relationship between individual differences in PoM and trait emotion regulation. In two studies, participants from Finland (Study 1, N = 417) and the US (Study 2, N = 303) completed measures of PoM, trait emotion regulation, and other aspects of well-being and ill-being. Results showed that people with higher levels of PoM displayed a greater tendency to use cognitive reappraisal and a lesser tendency to use expressive suppression. Our findings suggest that adaptive emotion regulation may play an important role in explaining PoM and may serve as a promising target for interventions designed to enhance PoM.

Does Personality, Trait Emotion Regulation, and Trait Attentional Control Contribute toward the Experience and Impact of an Alcohol Hangover?

Mixed results have been reported for the relationship between personality and hangover, but recent findings have indicated that regulatory and attentional control processes may relate to hangover severity and the impact of a hangover on completing daily activities. This study aimed to explore how these factors relate to hangover severity, hangover impact, and to unhealthy alcohol use. In total, 108 participants completed a survey, rating the severity and impact of their last-experienced hangover and completing measures of the above factors. Separate multiple linear regressions were conducted to analyse each outcome (severity, impact, unhealthy drinking). For severity, the overall regression was significant (Adj. R2 = 0.46, p < 0.001), with the attentional control factor 'Focusing' (B = -0.096, p = 0.011), and personality factor 'Agreeableness' (B = 0.072, p = 0.005) predicting severity. For impact, the overall regression was significant (Adj. R2 = 0.41, p < 0.001) with the attentional control factor 'Shifting' (B = -0.252, p = 0.021), personality factors 'Extraversion' (B = 0.225, p = 0.009) and 'Agreeableness' (B = -0.156, p = 0.042), and hangover severity (B = 1.603, p < 0.001) predicting impact. For unhealthy drinking, the overall regression model was significant (Adj. R2 = 0.45, p < 0.001) with emotion dysregulation factors 'Awareness' (B = 0.301, p = 0.044) and 'Impulse Control' (B = 0.381, p = 0.011) predicting unhealthy drinking. These findings add to our understanding of the heterogeneity of hangover experience and highlight that attentional control, emotion regulation, and personality play important roles in the experience and impact of a hangover.

State and Trait Emotion Regulation Diversity in Social Anxiety.

Emotion regulation (ER) diversity, defined as the variety, frequency, and evenness of ER strategies used, may predict social anxiety (SA) severity. In a sample of individuals with high (n=113) or low (n=42) SA severity, we tested whether four trait ER diversity metrics predicted group membership. We generalized existing trait ER diversity calculations to repeated-measures data to test if state-level metrics (using two weeks of EMA data) predicted SA severity within the higher severity group. As hypothesized (osf.io/xadyp), higher trait ER diversity within avoidance-oriented strategies predicted greater likelihood of belonging to the higher severity group. At the state-level, higher diversity across all ER strategies, and within and between avoidance- and approach-oriented strategies, predicted higher SA severity (but only after controlling for number of submitted EMAs). Only diversity within avoidance-oriented strategies was significantly correlated across trait and state levels. Findings suggest that high avoidance-oriented ER diversity may co-occur with higher SA severity.

A Pilot Open Trial of a Digital Mindfulness-Based Intervention for Anorexia Nervosa

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a chronic and debilitating psychiatric disorder. Unfortunately, current treatments are lacking, with only 30-50% of individuals with AN recovering after treatment. We developed a beta-version of a digital mindfulness-based intervention for AN called Mindful Courage-Beta, which includes: (a) one foundational multimedia module; (b) 10 daily meditation mini-modules; (c) emphasis on a core skill set called the BOAT (Breathe, Observe, Accept, Take a Moment); and (d) brief phone coaching for both technical and motivational support. In this open trial, we aimed to evaluate (1) acceptability and feasibility; (2) intervention skill use and its association with state mindfulness in daily life; and (3) pre-to-post changes in target mechanisms and outcomes. Eighteen individuals with past-year AN or past-year atypical AN completed Mindful Courage-Beta over 2 weeks. Participants completed measures of acceptability, trait mindfulness, emotion regulation, eating disorder symptoms, and body dissatisfaction. Participants also completed ecological momentary assessment of skill use and state mindfulness. Acceptability ratings were good (ease-of-use: 8.2/10, helpfulness: 7.6/10). Adherence was excellent (100% completion for foundational module and 96% for mini-modules). Use of the BOAT in daily life was high (1.8 times/day) and was significantly associated with higher state mindfulness at the within-person level. We also found significant, large improvements in the target mechanisms of trait mindfulness (d = .96) and emotion regulation (d = .76), as well as significant, small-medium to medium-large reductions in eating disorder symptoms (ds = .36–.67) and body dissatisfaction (d = .60). Changes in trait mindfulness and emotion regulation had medium-large size correlations with changes in global ED symptoms and body dissatisfaction (rs = .43 – .56). Mindful Courage-Beta appears to be promising and further research on a longer, refined version is warranted.

Role of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being in second language learners’ trait emotional intelligence and emotion regulation

Role of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being in second language learners’ trait emotional intelligence and emotion regulation

Trait mindfulness and emotion regulation responsiveness to negative affect in daily life.

Recent conceptualizations of adaptive emotion regulation is predicated on the ability to flexibly use emotion regulation strategies to meet changing contextual demands. Although trait mindfulness has been linked to enhanced emotional well-being and use of adaptive emotion regulation strategies, there is a dearth of literature examining associations between trait mindfulness and emotion regulation flexibility. Further, despite a rich literature suggesting that emotion regulation processes change with age, no study to date has assessed whether the role of trait mindfulness on emotion regulation responsiveness to negative emotions-a component of emotion regulation flexibility-differs between young and older adults. The current study recruited 130 young adults and 130 older adults to assess trait mindfulness, emotion regulation strategy use, and emotion regulation responsiveness of six distinct strategies in daily life. Across the full sample, trait mindfulness was related to reduced distraction ( = -0.11, t(238.09) = -3.02, p = .003) and expressive suppression ( = -0.15, t(237.70) = -4.62, p < .001) strategy use. Age moderation analyses revealed that trait mindfulness was associated with reduced expressive suppression responsiveness ( = 0.12, t(247) = 2.31, p = .022) in young adults and increased detached reappraisal responsiveness among older adults ( = 0.15, t(247) = -2.95, p = .003). The current findings highlight the importance of understanding how trait mindfulness is associated with strategy use and responsiveness to negative affect changes in daily life as well as how these patterns may shift across the lifespan. Open Science Framework, registration number: z5g8v.

The effects of exposure to social media images of thin and average size women on body satisfaction among young women: Emotion regulation and self-efficacy as modulating factors

Although appearance comparison has emerged as an important mechanism underlying the detrimental effects of exposure to idealized social media images on body image among young women, little is known regarding the role of the direction of these comparisons. In addition, to date, little attention has been paid to the role of self-regulation processes in these effects. A sample of 260 female students (Mage = 19.6) from a University in Paris completed an online survey where they were randomly assigned to view thin-ideal or average size social media images of women. Participants reported on state body satisfaction before and after exposure, as well as state appearance comparison and direction of appearance comparison, and trait emotion regulation difficulties and self-efficacy. Findings revealed no main effect of condition. However, among participants who engaged in upwards appearance comparison the thin-ideal condition was associated with greater decreases in body satisfaction. In addition, three-way interactions revealed that emotional regulation difficulties and self-efficacy both further moderated these effects. These findings suggest that self-regulation processes may be important to account for in the effects of exposure to social media images on body satisfaction among young women.

Trait boldness and emotion regulation: An event-related potential investigation

The present study sought to extend knowledge of the role of boldness, a transdiagnostic bipolar trait dimension involving low sensitivity to threat, in emotional reactivity and regulation using physiological and report-based measures. One prior study found that boldness was associated with reduced late positive potential (LPP) while passively viewing aversive images, but not during emotion regulation; a disconnect between LPP and self-reported reactivity was also observed. Here, participants (N = 63) completed an emotion regulation task in which they either passively viewed or effortfully up- or downregulated their emotional reactivity to pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral pictures while EEG activity was recorded; they later retrospectively rated the success of their regulation efforts. ANOVAs examining the interactive effects of regulation instruction and boldness on LPP amplitude revealed that lower boldness (higher trait fearfulness) was associated with paradoxical increases in LPP to threat photos during instructed downregulation, relative to passive viewing, along with lower reported regulation success on these trials. Unexpectedly, similar LPP effects were observed for affective images overall, and especially nurturance photos. Although subject to certain limitations, these results suggest that individual differences in boldness play a role not only in general reactivity to aversive stimuli, as evidenced by prior work, but in the ability to effortfully downregulate emotional response.

Effects of mindfulness meditation on trait mindfulness, perceived stress, emotion regulation, and quality of life in hemodialysis patients: A randomized controlled trial

ObjectiveThis study aimed to examine the effects of mindfulness meditation on trait mindfulness, perceived stress, emotion regulation, and quality of life in end-stage renal disease patients undergoing hemodialysis. MethodsAn experimental study with repeated measures design was conducted among a sample of 74 end-stage renal disease patients undergoing hemodialysis between January and May 2021 in the dialysis center at Jahra hospital, Kuwait. The patients were randomly assigned to the experimental (n = 37) and control groups (n = 37). The experimental group participated in 30-min mindfulness meditation sessions (three sessions a week for five weeks) held during their hemodialysis sessions; the participants in the control group were instructed to sit with their eyes closed and relaxed for 30 min three times a week for five weeks during hemodialysis sessions. The dependent variables of both groups were measured at baseline (T0), middle of intervention (T1), and end of intervention (T2) using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), and Kidney Disease Quality of Life (KDQOL-36) questionnaire. The study was registered in the ClinicalTrial.gov (Identifier: NCT05176730). ResultsThe repeated measures ANOVA (within-subject) results for the experimental group showed that mindfulness meditation had significantly decreased perceived stress by the end of the intervention. Also, mindfulness meditation improved mindfulness, emotion regulation, and kidney disease-related quality of life in the experimental group, and this improvement occurred significantly at both T1 and T2. The repeated measures ANOVA (within and between-subject) results showed that the experimental group, as compared to the control group, had lower perceived stress, higher trait mindfulness, higher emotional regulation, and higher kidney disease-related quality of life over time. ConclusionsThe positive findings of this study offer health policy-makers and hospital administrators a promising tool to use with patients undergoing hemodialysis as a way to manage stress and improve quality of life. However, this study should be replicated in multiple settings with follow-up assessments.

Individual differences in emotion regulation and cardiovascular responding to stress.

Instructed use of reappraisal to regulate stress in the laboratory is typically associated with a more adaptive cardiovascular response to stress, indexed by either (a) lower cardiovascular reactivity (CVR; e.g., lower blood pressure) or (b) a challenge-oriented response profile (i.e., greater cardiac output paired with lower total peripheral resistance). In contrast, instructed use of suppression is associated with exaggerated CVR (e.g., greater heart rate, blood pressure). Despite this, few studies have examined if the habitual use of these strategies are related to cardiovascular responding during stress. The current study examined the relationship between cardiovascular responses to acute stress and individual differences in emotion regulation style: trait reappraisal, suppression, and emotion regulation difficulties. Forty-eight participants (25 women, 23 men) completed a standardized laboratory stress paradigm incorporating a 20-minute acclimatization period, a 10-minute baseline, and two 5-minute speech tasks separated by a 10-minute intertask rest period. The emotional valence of the speech task was examined as a potential moderating factor; participants spoke about a block of negative-emotion words and a block of neutral-emotion words. Cardiovascular parameters were measured using the Finometer Pro. Greater habitual use of suppression was associated with exaggerated blood pressure responding to both tasks. However, only in response to the negative-emotion task was greater use of reappraisal associated with a challenge-oriented cardiovascular response. The findings suggest that individual differences in emotion regulation translate to differing patterns of CVR to stress, but the emotional valence of the stressor may play a role. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Teachers’ life satisfaction: A structural equation model analyzing the role of trait emotion regulation, intrinsic job satisfaction and affect

Teaching is an emotionally demanding profession that can negatively affect teacher well-being. This cross-sectional study aimed to test a comprehensive structural equation model of both the direct and indirect (through affect and intrinsic job satisfaction) relationships between trait emotion regulation and life satisfaction in a sample of 404 Spanish teachers. The model obtained good fit (S–B χ2 = 319.142, df = 201, p < .001; CFI = 0.957; RMSEA = 0.038). Outcomes suggested that: i) positive and negative affect mediates the relationship between trait emotion regulation and both life and job satisfaction; ii) job satisfaction is the main determinant of life satisfaction. Practical implications and limitations are also discussed.