Training Load In Athletes Research Articles

Cross Sectional Study About Intra-Individual and Inter-Individual Variability of Subjective Effort in Submaximal Sprint Running in Collegiate Male Sprinters

Background: Although subjective exercise intensity is widely used to monitor training load in athletes, the reliability of subjective effort (SE) during high-intensity sprint running has not yet been established. Objectives: This study aimed to examine the intra-individual and inter-individual variability in sprint running performance at different SE levels. Methods: Eighteen male collegiate sprinters participated in the study. We measured 60 m sprint running performance at four SE levels (60% SE, 80% SE, 90% SE, and 100% SE) every day for 5 days. The coefficient of variation (CV) of each participant’s 5-day performance (60 m sprint time (60T) and 40 - 50 m interval average speed (SP)) was calculated to assess the intra-individual variability of SE. A repeated measures ANOVA was used to compare 60 T, SP, and the CVs of 60 T and SP across the different SE levels. Results: The SP ratios of each submaximal sprint (60% SE, 80% SE, 90% SE) to the maximal sprint (100% SE) were 89.72 ± 1.62%, 95.50 ± 1.08%, and 98.11 ± 0.56%, respectively. The inter-individual variation at each SE level for 60T was inversely related to the SE level (60% SE: 3.25%, 80% SE: 2.31%, 90% SE: 2.06%, and 100% SE: 1.54%). Significant differences were found in the intra-individual variability (CV) of 60 T between 60% SE (2.22 ± 0.35%) and 90% SE (1.42 ± 0.22%), 60% SE and 100% SE (1.40 ± 0.30%), 80% SE (1.95 ± 0.32%) and 90% SE, and between 80% SE and 100% SE (P < 0.05). Conclusions: Intra- and inter-individual variation at all SE levels were below 5%, indicating that SE is a reliable indicator of sprint running intensity. However, the lower the SE, the greater the variability, suggesting SE is most suitable for higher-intensity sprint running.

Developments in research on monitoring training loads in athletes: bibliometric analysis

Developments in research on monitoring training loads in athletes: bibliometric analysis

A Review of the Validity and Reliability of Accelerometer-Based Metrics From Upper Back-Mounted GNSS Player Tracking Systems for Athlete Training Load Monitoring.

Dawson, L, Beato, M, Devereux, G, and McErlain-Naylor, SA. A review of the validity and reliability of accelerometer-based metrics from upper back-mounted GNSS player tracking systems for athlete training load monitoring. J Strength Cond Res 38(8): e459-e474, 2024-Athlete load monitoring using upper back-mounted global navigation satellite system (GNSS) player tracking is common within many team sports. However, accelerometer-based load monitoring may provide information that cannot be achieved with GNSS alone. This review focuses on the accelerometer-based metrics quantifying the accumulation of accelerations as an estimation of athlete training load, appraising the validity and reliability of accelerometer use in upper back-mounted GNSS player tracking systems, the accelerometer-based metrics, and their potential for application within athlete monitoring. Reliability of GNSS-housed accelerometers and accelerometer-based metrics are dependent on the equipment model, signal processing methods, and the activity being monitored. Furthermore, GNSS unit placement on the upper back may be suboptimal for accelerometer-based estimation of mechanical load. Because there are currently no feasible gold standard comparisons for field-based whole-body biomechanical load, the validity of accelerometer-based load metrics has largely been considered in relation to other measures of training load and exercise intensity. In terms of convergent validity, accelerometer-based metrics (e.g., PlayerLoad, Dynamic Stress Load, Body Load) have correlated, albeit with varying magnitudes and certainty, with measures of internal physiological load, exercise intensity, total distance, collisions and impacts, fatigue, and injury risk and incidence. Currently, comparisons of these metrics should not be made between athletes because of mass or technique differences or between manufacturers because of processing variations. Notable areas for further study include the associations between accelerometer-based metrics and other parts of biomechanical load-adaptation pathways of interest, such as internal biomechanical loads or methods of manipulating these metrics through effective training design.

Optimization system for training efficiency and load balance based on the fusion of heart rate and inertial sensors

ObjectivesTo enhance the daily training quality of athletes without inducing significant physiological fatigue, aiming to achieve a balance between training efficiency and load. Design methodsFirstly, we developed an activity classification training model using the random forest algorithm and introduced the “effective training rate” (the ratio of effective activity time to total time) as a metric for assessing athlete training efficiency. Secondly, a method for rating athlete training load was established, involving qualitative and quantitative analyses of physiological fatigue through subjective fatigue scores and heart rate data. Lastly, an optimization system for training efficiency and load balance, utilizing multiple inertial sensors, was created. Athlete states were categorized into nine types based on the training load and efficiency ratings, with corresponding management recommendations provided. ResultsOverall, this study, combining a sports activity recognition model with a physiological fatigue assessment model, has developed a training efficiency and load balance optimization system with excellent performance. The results indicate that the prediction accuracy of the sports activity recognition model is as high as 94.70%. Additionally, the physiological fatigue assessment model, utilizing average relative heart rate and average RPE score as evaluation metrics, demonstrates a good overall fit, validating the feasibility of this model. ConclusionsThis study, based on relative heart rate and wearable devices to monitor athlete physiological fatigue, has developed a balanced optimization system for training efficiency and load. It provides a reference for athletes’ physical health and fatigue levels, offering corresponding management recommendations for coaches and relevant professionals.

Training-Load Management Ambiguities and Weak Logic: Creating Potential Consequences in Sport Training and Performance.

The optimization of athlete training load is not a new concept; however in recent years, the concept of "load management" is one of the most widely studied and divisive topics in sports science and medicine. Discuss the challenges faced by sports when utilizing training load monitoring and management, with a specific focus on the use of data to inform load management guidelines and policies/mandates, their consequences, and how we move this field forward. While guidelines can theoretically help protect athletes, overzealous and overcautious guidelines may restrict an athlete's preparedness, negatively influence performance, and increase injury risk. Poor methods, wrong interpretation of study findings, and faulty logic do not allow for systematic scientific evaluations to inform guidelines. Practical Solutions: Guidelines and mandates should be developed through a systematic research process with stronger research designs and clear research questions. Collaborating with statistical and epidemiological experts is essential. Implementing open science principles and sharing all sports training load data increase transparency and allow for more rapid and valid advancements in knowledge. Practitioners should incorporate multiple data streams and consider individual athlete responses, rather than applying broad guidelines based on average data. Many current training load guidelines and mandates in sports come from good intentions; however, they are arbitrary without sound knowledge of the underlying scientific principles or methods. Common sense guidelines are helpful when there is sparse literature, but they should be careful to avoid arbitrarily choosing findings from weak research. Without precise scientific inquiries, implementing training load interventions or guidelines can have negative implications.

Blood-Based Biomarkers for Managing Workload in Athletes: Perspectives for Research on Emerging Biomarkers.

At present, various blood-based biomarkers have found their applications in the field of sports medicine. This current opinion addresses biomarkers that warrant consideration in future research for monitoring the athlete training load. In this regard, we identified a variety of emerging load-sensitive biomarkers, e.g., cytokines (such as IL-6), chaperones (such as heat shock proteins) or enzymes (such as myeloperoxidase) that could improve future athlete load monitoring as they have shown meaningful increases in acute and chronic exercise settings. In some cases, they have even been linked to training status or performance characteristics. However, many of these markers have not been extensively studied and the cost and effort of measuring these parameters are still high, making them inconvenient for practitioners so far. We therefore outline strategies to improve knowledge of acute and chronic biomarker responses, including ideas for standardized study settings. In addition, we emphasize the need for methodological advances such as the development of minimally invasive point-of-care devices as well as statistical aspects related to the evaluation of these monitoring tools to make biomarkers suitable for regular load monitoring.

The Characteristics and Monitoring System of Athletes’ Physical Strength Training Based on Tunable Neuron Mathematical Model

Abstract In this paper, an adjustable neural network model is developed to predict the physical training load of athletes. This paper takes 48 contestants as experimental subjects. Then the average speed prediction method, nonlinear regression model prediction method and neural network model prediction method model are established to predict the training load. This paper uses three different prediction models to compare the training results. The relative error rate calculated by the average rate prediction method is about 23%. The close error rate calculated by the linear regression method is about 32%. The relative error rate calculated by the adjustable neural network is around 8%. The e flexible neural network model has good prediction accuracy.

Effects of Various Rehabilitations on Pain and Performance of Elite Athletes Who Return to Play after Lumbar Disc Herniation

It is well-known that lower back pain (LBP) is a fairly common complaint in professional sports. Lumbar disc herniation (LDH) is a common cause of LBP in athletes. Currently, more robust studies on treatment and rehabilitation modalities for elite athletes, who have LDH, are needed. This study investigated the effects of various rehabilitations on recovery process and return to sport in elite male athletes who have surgical treatment of LDH. Participants: elite male athletes (n=46) who underwent surgical intervention – removal of a herniation of the intervertebral disc (L4-L5-S1) on lumbar spine (lumbar discectomy). Group-1 (athletes – n=23), who applied physical rehabilitation (specific motor exercises) during 3 months after surgical treatment. Group-2 (athletes – n=23) applied electroneuromyostimulation therapy and limited physical activity during 2 months after surgical intervention. After 2 months, athletes (group-2) applied specific motor exercises during 30 days, in addition to electroneuromyostimulation routine. All athletes returned to play, after rehabilitation routine. The level of pain and training load of athletes using Visual Analog Scale (VAS), Russian Oswestry Disability Index (RODI) and personal athletes' diaries in 3–12 months after surgical treatment, were analyzed. There were significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences in VAS and RODI rates between groups in 6–12 months after surgical intervention. There were significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences in total training load amount between groups in 9–12 months after operative treatment. Athletes (group-2) demonstrated a lower level of pain and a higher level of daily training load amount in comparison with athletes (group-1). There is a strong positive effect of electroneuromyostimulation therapy and restriction of physical activity in rehabilitation routine for elite male athletes, who returned to sports after surgical treatment of LDH.

Monitoring A Canadian Recreational Rowing Athlete’s Psychophysiological Response To Training Load: A Case Study

There has been growing attention to the monitoring of elite athlete training load, aiming to optimize performance and reduce injury/illness. However, research designs have yet to combine evidence-based practices (i.e., validated surveys) with popular methodology used by recreational athletes (ie., wearables) to support self-management of training loads and recovery. PURPOSE: To comprehensively describe a Canadian rowing athlete’s standardized performance and psychophysiological responses to training load across a 6-week training block. METHODS: 1 male Canadian rowing athlete recruit (20 years), volunteered to participate in the current study. Rowing performance (i.e., anaerobic 4x500m sprint, aerobic 10-minute row for distance) was assessed on weeks 1, 6. Daily surveys and/or wearables data were collected to assess: sleep (hours), session rate of perceived exertion (sRPE), training days lost to injury, session heart rate maximum (HRmax) and average (bpm), and training volume in minutes. The Recovery Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport-36) was used to assess athletes’ perception of stress and recovery. Descriptive statistics were computed for each of the collected variables. RESULTS: Anaerobic performances observed across time were as follows: Week 1 = 1:37.7 min/500 m, Week 6 = 1:36.9 min/500 m. Aerobic performances observed across time were as follows: Week 1 = 1:42.0 min/500 m, Week 6 = 1:43.2 min/500 m. Across the 6-week period, the participant reported the following on average: sleep = 7.5 hours per night, sRPE = 4.8 ± 3.2, 7 training days lost due to illness/injury, session HRmax = 153 ± 28 bpm, session average HR = 110 ± 30 bpm, and training volume = 59.5 ± 41.2 min/session. On average, the participant reported low stress (1.1-2.5), high general recovery (3.0-3.3), low sport stress (0.9-2.7), and high sport recovery (2.6-3.2). CONCLUSIONS: Despite growing attention to self-monitor athlete training load and recovery to optimize performance and reduce injury/illness, there were no observed improvements in performances from week 1 to week 6. With these lack of findings, future research should address interventions to focus on performance improvement through sufficient training stimulus and adequate recovery among recreational athletes.

Hyperoxia Improves Repeated-Sprint Ability and the Associated Training Load in Athletes.

This study investigated the impact of hyperoxic gas breathing (HYP) on repeated-sprint ability (RSA) and on the associated training load (TL). Thirteen team- and racquet-sport athletes performed 6-s all-out sprints with 24-s recovery until exhaustion (power decrement ≥ 15% for two consecutive sprints) under normoxic (NOR: FIO2 0.21) and hyperoxic (HYP: FIO2 0.40) conditions in a randomized, single-blind and crossover design. The following variables were recorded throughout the tests: mechanical indices, arterial O2 saturation (SpO2), oxygenation of the vastus lateralis muscle with near-infrared spectroscopy, and electromyographic activity of the vastus lateralis, rectus femoris, and gastrocnemius lateralis muscles. Session TL (work × rate of perceived exertion) and neuromuscular efficiency (work/EMG [Electromyography]) were calculated. Compared with NOR, HYP increased SpO2 (2.7 ± 0.8%, Cohen's effect size ES 0.55), the number of sprints (14.5 ± 8.6%, ES 0.28), the total mechanical work (13.6 ± 6.8%, ES 0.30), and the session TL (19.4 ± 7.0%, ES 0.33). Concomitantly, HYP increased the amplitude of muscle oxygenation changes during sprints (25.2 ± 11.7%, ES 0.36) and recovery periods (26.1 ± 11.4%, ES 0.37), as well as muscle recruitment (9.9 ± 12.1%, ES 0.74), and neuromuscular efficiency (6.9 ± 9.0%, ES 0.24). It was concluded that breathing a hyperoxic mixture enriched to 40% O2 improves the total work performed and the associated training load during an open-loop RSA session in trained athletes. This ergogenic impact may be mediated by metabolic and neuromuscular alterations.

Динаміка приросту силових показників спортсменів бодібілдерів 18-19 років на етапі спеціалізованої базової підготовки

The purpose of the study was the analysis of the growth dynamics of power indicators of athletes-bodybuilders at the stage of specialized basic training. Materials and methods. The study was conducted from March to the end of June (4 months) 2021. It involved 60 athletes aged from 18 to 19 years. Three research groups were formed, 20 athletes in each. These groups of athletes were divided by the usual sample method and by age. Qualification and anthropometric characteristics did not differ significantly. The only difference was in the proposed training programs. Theoretical analysis of scientific and methodological literature was carried out. Test control method for determining the maximum muscle strength of athletes to assess the initial level of muscle strength development in the surveyed contingent and determine the characteristics of its dynamics, was used. The obtained data were used to calculate the indicators of the value of the training load of athletes. In addition, method for quantitative assessment of athletes' physical load was used. The mathematical processing of research results was carried out using the software packages IBM SPSS Statistics 20. Results and discussion. The research results indicate that the values of the training loads indicators of bodybuilders and the nature of their changes in conditions of the same level of athletes' fitness and the structure of the training session depend on the characteristics of the selected training means (training programs). The analysis of the results obtained shows that under the conditions of the second variant of the training program, the indicators of the working mass of the athletes' equipment change more significantly during the entire research period. A similar tendency is observed when monitoring the load volume indicators, despite the fact that the most significant increase in this indicator among bodybuilders when performing formative exercises was obtained under the conditions of using the third variant of the training program, using the “premature fatigue” method. Conclusion. The growth rates of the strength capabilities of the main muscle groups turned out to be the highest among bodybuilders of the second main group due to the long-term use of the “premature fatigue” method. When performing exercises of a formative nature, the growth rate of strength capabilities was 30.9% (p <0.05), while when performing exercises of a basic nature, such an increase was three times less (by 10.5%, p <0.05)

How to Collect Rating of Perceived Exertion to Monitor Athlete Training Load

Through this article coaches will learn how to collect rating of perceived exertion (RPE), interpret RPE data, and use it to make informed decisions about training load. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to explore the implementations of RPE and explain practical outcomes relating to load management and ultimately training effectiveness.

Intermittent Hypoxia Exposure Helps to Restore the Reduced Hemoglobin Concentration During Intense Exercise Training in Trained Swimmers

In prolonged intense exercise training, the training load of athletes may be reduced once their hemoglobin concentrations ([Hb]s) are decreased dramatically. We previously reported that intermittent hypoxia exposure (IHE) could be used to alleviate the decrease of [Hb] and help to maintain the training load in rats. To further explore the feasibility of applying IHE intervention to athletes during prolonged intense exercise training, 6 trained swimmers were recruited to conduct a 4-week IHE intervention at the intervals after their [Hb] dropped for 10% or more during their training season. IHE intervention lasted 1 h and took place once a day and five times a week. Hematological and hormonal parameters, including [Hb], red blood cells (RBC), hematocrit (Hct), reticulocytes, serum erythropoietin (EPO), testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) were examined. After the IHE intervention was launched, [Hb], RBC and Hct of the subjects were increased progressively with their maximum levels (P < 0.01) showing at the third or fourth week, respectively. An increase in reticulocyte count (P < 0.01) suggests that IHE intervention promotes erythropoiesis to increase [Hb]. Besides, serum level of EPO, the hormone known to stimulate erythropoiesis, was overall higher than that before the IHE intervention, although it was statistically insignificant. Furthermore, the serum level of T, another hormone known to stimulate erythropoiesis, was increased progressively with the maximum level showing at the fourth week. Collectively, this study further confirms that IHE intervention may be used as a new strategy to prevent intense exercise training-induced reductions in [Hb].

Effects of training load and non‐training stress on injury risk in collegiate ice hockey players

This prospective cohort study investigated the relationships between cumulative training loads measured in arbitrary units (AU), non-training stress levels, and athletic injury risk in one team of male collegiate ice hockey players. Measures of athlete training load and non-training stress were recorded each on-ice session over one season. Daily load and stress sums were calculated for the two-day and two-week periods preceding each on-ice session. Athletic injuries were also recorded, and odds ratio analyses were used to determine relationships between training load and injury risk, as well as non-training stress and injury risk. Athletes who exerted training loads of 360 AU-540 AU and of 540 AU-1380 AU over 2 days experienced significantly greater odds of injury compared to athletes who exerted training loads <360 AU and <540 AU, respectively. This study concluded that as two-day training load increases, so do the odds of injury in this sample. In an effort to reduce the odds of athletic injury, the monitoring of individual two-day cumulative training load should be incorporated into the training programs of elite ice hockey players.

Relationship Between External Load and Self-Reported Wellness Measures Across a Men's Collegiate Soccer Preseason.

Fields, JB, Lameira, DM, Short, JL, Merrigan, JM, Gallo, S, White, JB, and Jones, MT. Relationship between external load and self-reported wellness measures across a collegiate men's soccer preseason. J Strength Cond Res 35(5): 1182-1186, 2021-Monitoring athlete training load is important to training programming and can help balance training and recovery periods. Furthermore, psychological factors can affect athlete's performance. Therefore, the purpose was to examine the relationship between external load and self-reported wellness measures during soccer preseason. Collegiate men soccer athletes (n = 20; mean ± SD age: 20.3 ± 0.9 years; body mass: 77.9 ± 6.8 kg; body height: 178.87 ± 7.18cm; body fat: 10.0 ± 5.0%; V̇o2max: 65.39 ± 7.61ml·kg-1·min-1) participated. Likert scale self-assessments of fatigue, soreness, sleep, stress, and energy were collected daily in conjunction with the Brief Assessment of Mood (vigor, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion). Total distance (TD), player load (PL), high-speed distance (HSD, >13 mph [5.8 m·s-1]), high inertial movement analysis (IMA, >3.5 m·s-2), and repeated high-intensity efforts (RHIEs) were collected in each training session using positional monitoring (global positioning system/global navigation satellite system [GPS/GNSS]) technology. Session rate of perceived exertion (sRPE) was determined from athlete's post-training rating (Borg CR-10 Scale) and time of training session. Multilevel models revealed the bidirectional prediction of load markers on fatigue, soreness, sleep, energy, and sRPE (p < 0.05). Morning ratings of soreness and fatigue were predicted by previous afternoon's practice measures of TD, PL, HSD, IMA, RHIE, and sRPE. Morning soreness and fatigue negatively predicted that day's afternoon practice TD, PL, HSD, IMA, RHIE, and sRPE. Morning ratings of negative mood were positively predicted by previous day's afternoon practice HSD. In addition, negative morning mood states inversely predicted HSD (p = 0.011), TD (p = 0.002), and PL (p < 0.001) for that day's afternoon practice. Using self-reported wellness measures with GPS/GNSS technology may enhance the understanding of training responses and inform program development.

Means of restoring physical fitness of employees of the National Police of Ukraine

The analysis of scientific and educational-methodical works which cover methods and means of restoration of physical working capacity of experts of various specialties is carried out. It was stated that the official activity of police officers involves significant physical and psychological stress. It is substantiated that a high level of physical performance is one of the conditions for quality performance of functional duties and contributes to less manifestation of the effects of fatigue. The specifics of physical activity in the conditions of police service necessitate the search for tools that contribute to the rapid and full recovery of physical performance of law enforcement officers.&#x0D; It is established that the quantitative manifestation of the level of physical fitness of the specialist is necessary for the assessment of the functional reserves of the organism during the organization of physical education of the population; in sports, during the selection, planning and forecasting of training loads of athletes; in adaptive physical education; to determine the motor mode of patients in clinics and rehabilitation centers; forecasting the course of diseases.&#x0D; The specifics of application of pedagogical, medico-biological and psychological means of restoration of physical working capacity of policemen are characterized. It is argued that in the conditions of professional training of police officers, pedagogical tools are key in optimizing the recovery processes, as they are based on the body's natural ability to self-healing. Medico-biological and psychological means of recovery are considered additional only if the rational construction of the educational process. These tools help to increase the body's resistance to stress, accelerate the reduction of acute manifestations of general and local fatigue, effective recovery of energy resources, accelerate adaptation processes.&#x0D; It is determined that restorative means should be used in accordance with the type and specifics of physical activity, taking into account the individual characteristics of the police officer. When choosing the means of recovery, a rational combination of means of general and local action becomes important.

Reciprocal Associations Between Sleep, Mental Strain, and Training Load in Junior Endurance Athletes and the Role of Poor Subjective Sleep Quality.

The importance of adequate sleep for athletic functioning is well established. Still, the literature shows that many athletes report sleep of suboptimal quality or quantity. To date, no research has investigated how bidirectional variations in mental and physiological states influence sleep patterns. The present study, therefore, investigates reciprocal associations between sleep, mental strain, and training load by utilizing a prospective, observational design. In all, 56 junior endurance athletes were followed over 61 consecutive days. Unobtrusive, objective measurements of sleep with novel radar technology were obtained, and subjective daily reports of mental strain and training load were collected. The role of subjective sleep quality was investigated to identify whether the reciprocal associations between sleep, mental strain, and training load depended on being a good versus poor sleeper. Multilevel modeling with Bayesian estimation was used to investigate the relationships. The results show that increases in mental strain are associated with decreased total sleep time (TST, 95% CI = −0.12 to −0.03), light sleep (95% CI = −0.08 to −0.00), and sleep efficiency (95% CI = −0.95 to −0.09). Further, both mental strain and training load are associated with subsequent deceased rapid eye movement (REM, respectively, 95% CI = −0.05 to −0.00 and 95% CI = −0.06 to −0.00) sleep. Increases in TST, light, deep, and REM sleep are all associated with subsequent decreased training load (respectively, 95% CI = −0.09 to −0.03; 95% CI = −0.10 to −0.01; 95% CI = −0.22 to −0.02; 95% CI = −0.18 to −0.03). Finally, among poor sleepers, increases in sleep onset latency are associated with increases in subsequent mental strain (95% CI = 0.09–0.46), and increases in deep sleep are associated with decreases in subsequent training load (95% CI = −67.65 to 11.43). These results offer novel insight into the bidirectional associations between sleep, mental strain, and training load in athletes and demonstrate the detrimental effects of mental strain on sleep, likely caused by mental activation incompatible with sleep. An increased need for recovery, suggested by increased TST and time in different sleep stages, is associated with subsequent self-regulatory reduction of training loads by the athletes. In poor sleepers, increases in deep sleep may suggest an elevated need for physiological recovery.

Does a greater training load increase the risk of injury and illness in ultramarathon runners? : A prospective, descriptive, longitudinal design.

Ultramarathon running has become extremely popular over the years. Despite the numerous health benefits of running, there are also many negative effects of running, such as increased risk of musculoskeletal injury and illness. Monitoring of an athlete's training load has become extremely important in terms of injury prevention. Currently, the relationship between training loads and injury and illness incidence is uncertain. To determine if there are any associations between injury and illness incidences and training loads among ultramarathon runners in the 12 week period preceding an ultramarathon event and the four week period after the event. This prospective, descriptive, longitudinal study design was conducted in 119 runners who were training for the 2019 Two Oceans ultramarathon event. Data were collected once a week via an online logbook over 16 weeks. Training parameters measured included weekly average running distance, average duration, average frequency and average sessional RPE. Injury data included injury counts, the structure injured, the main anatomical location and the time-loss as a result of injury. Illness data included illness counts, the main illness-related symptoms and the time-loss as a result of illness. The overall injury incidence was five per 1000 training hours and the overall illness incidence was 16 per 1000 training days. There was a significant relationship between external training load and injury and illness incidence for those who ran less than 30 km per week. There was also a significant relationship between the ACWR (Acute Chronic Workload Ratio) and injury incidence when the ACWR was >1.5 and for illness incidence when the ACWR was <0.5. The use of both absolute and relative workloads in the monitoring of an athlete's training load with the aim of minimising injury and illness risk and maximising performance in ultramarathon runners is recommended.

Might Salivary Lysozyme Be An Indicator Of Prolonged Intense Training Load In Athletes? A Preliminary Study In Adolescent Male Gymnasts

Lysozyme is one of the salivary antimicrobial proteins (AMP) which act as a defence at the mucosal surface. While in adult athletes, a decrease in salivary lysozyme (SLys) levels has been reported after prolonged intense training, to our knowledge, no studies have been conducted to study the relationship between SLys levels and long-term physical activity in children or teenagers.The aim of this preliminary study was mainly to evaluate in a group of adolescent male gymnasts undergoing prolonged intense training load whether - in accordance with studies in adult athletes - there will also be a decrease in SLys and if so, whether this phenomenon will be so common that we detect it in a small group of study participants.Twelve adolescent male gymnasts aged from 15.0 ± 1.6 years of national or international performance level were recruited to participate in this study. All participants of the study had their sample of saliva taken: I. Period) after the transitional period (rest), i.e. just before the beginning of the preparatory training period. II. Period) immediately after the end of the preparatory training period that was focused on maximal strength and power development. Preparatory training period lasting 6 weeks consisted of nine 2.5 hour training units (on average) over 6 days in every week. At the same time, three times per week two-a-day training sessions were incorporated. Intensity of the physical exercise was not determined.We found a significant decrease in SLys levels after the preparatory training period (termed as II. period) compared to its level just before the start of the training (i.e. after the rest, termed as I. period).The results of this preliminary study suggest that SLys measurements may be an indicator of prolonged training load in adolescent athletes. Although the intensity of the training load has not been determined, the national and international performance level of the gymnasts enrolled in the study allows at least a rough estimate of its level. However, with respect to some limitations of our study, larger studies on male and female adolescent athletes, applying relevant training load with monitoring of variables such as specific sports performance, physical fitness, nutrition, sleep quality, social and psychological factors, are desirable.

The Effects of an Intensive 2-wk Resistance Training Period on Strength Performance and Nocturnal Heart Rate Variability.

It is known that modifying the endurance-type training load of athletes may result in altered cardiac autonomic modulation that may be estimated with heart rate variability (HRV). However, the specific effects of intensive resistance-type training remain unclear. The main aim of this study was to find out whether an intensive 2-wk resistance training period affects the nocturnal HRV and strength performance of healthy participants. Young healthy men (N = 13, age 24 [2]y) performed 2-wk baseline training, 2-wk intensive training, and a 9-d tapering periods, with 2, 5, and 2 hypertrophic whole-body resistance exercise sessions per week, respectively. Maximal isometric and dynamic strength were tested at the end of these training periods. Nocturnal HRV was also analyzed at the end of these training periods. As a main finding, the nocturnal root mean square of differences of successive R-R intervals decreased (P = .004; from 49 [18] to 43 [15]ms; 95% CI, 2.4-10.4; effect size = 0.97) during the 2-wk intensive resistance training period. In addition, maximal isometric strength improved slightly (P = .045; from 3933 [1362] to 4138 [1540]N; 95% CI, 5.4-404; effect size = 0.60). No changes were found in 1-repetition-maximum leg press or leg press repetitions at 80% 1-repetition maximum. The present data suggest that increased training load due to a short-term intensive resistance training period can be detected by nocturnal HRV. However, despite short-term accumulated physiological stress, a tendency of improvement in strength performance was detected.