Milk Trade Research Articles

A very lucrative liquid: the emerging trade in human milk as a form of reproductive exploitation and violence against women

PurposeAn emerging market in human milk exists for both nutritional and biomedical research purposes. This commercialisation of human milk, however, raises issues about the exploitation and violence against women.Design/methodology/approachThis paper explores the framing of the issues as one of human rights, and whether the shifting of gender issues away from gender-specific spaces in legal and ethical debates, makes their ethical consideration and the tangible consequences from these considerations, into a potential further sources of exploitation and other forms of violence against women.FindingsThe authors find the commoditisation of human milk as a nutritional product deprives women from the centrality of their roles and, therefore, from the upholding of women rights and the adequate prevention of violence against women. They identify an emerging space where trafficking in women and girls can occur for their milk as part of a broader set of practices of reproductive exploitation. They also identify that existing legal, ethical and research discussions often frame labour or organ trafficking as the appropriate framework but find this inadequate to address the inherently gendered aspect of reproductive exploitation. The current response makes trafficking in women for their milk a potential practice while concealing the structural inequalities that underpin women’s experiences as the buyers and sellers of human milk.Practical implicationsThe regulation of human milk sale should therefore move from a public health paradigm focused on safety to one of health and women’s rights, whereas human trafficking laws around the world should explicitly address reproductive exploitation.Originality/valueEmerging forms of exploitation, such as human milk sale remain underdiscussed alongside other more prominent forms of reproductive exploitation, such as surrogacy. The authors call for explicit consideration of the emerging trade as its burdens fall exclusively on women and existing frameworks for addressing exploitation often overlook these emerging practices and the structural inequalities faced by women that drive these trades.

Interceptações de leite e produtos lácteos em fiscalização de trânsito agropecuário no estado do Maranhão

The aim of the current study is to perform a systematic investigation about the interception of milk and dairy products during agricultural product transport inspections carried out in Maranhao State. A retrospective study was conducted over a five-year period; it recorded 90 mobile monitoring events that together intercepted 3,500 liters of milk, 500 liters of kitchen butter, 2,836 kg of cheese, 1,700 kg of yogurt and 100 kg of yogurt ice cream. Most of these products (n = 13/16; 75%) were intercepted during their transportation from one city to another. The most recurring law violations regarded products transported in inappropriate vehicles (e.g., in the trunk of passenger buses and minibuses and in trucks used for animal-feed transportation) and in inappropriate packages such as garbage bags, rice-packing bags, cardboard boxes and non-reusable containers for micronutrients. All law violations recorded during the interceptions resulted in product confiscation, in fine issuing and, in specific cases, in product destruction through povidone iodine application. Fines issued due to irregular transportation of animal products during the assessed period accounted for R$ 11,688.00. It was possible concluding that the transportation of milk and dairy products in Maranhao State is not in compliance with the Brazilian legislation (ordinances, decrees), a fact that may endanger public health in the investigated State, as well as in other Brazilian cities that trade these products. It is essential intensifying these inspections to help suppressing the illegal trade of milk and dairy products.

Branding and retail strategy in the condensed milk trade: Borden and Nestlé in East Asia, 1870–1929

This article examines the branding, retail and consumer acceptance of condensed milk in Asian markets during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The two giants of the trade, Borden in the United States and Nestlé & Anglo-Swiss in Europe, each carved out distinct new markets in colonial Southeast Asia, but only the latter was committed to maintaining a long term presence, investing in local production and marketing, and taking over rights to Borden’s well-known Eagle brand after the Great War. As Nestlé expanded into Japan and China, its brand-led strategy faced new challenges of protectionism and a wave of lower priced knockoff products. Lacking a dedicated local partner, Nestlé lost ground, but remained focussed on retaining the integrity of its premium brands, a strategy that served it well over the long term.

Camel milk production and marketing: Pastoral areas of Afar, Ethiopia

Dromedary camels produce more milk for a longer period of time than any other milk animal held under the same harsh conditions. Produced milk is a primary source of some pastoralists’ food, nutrition and income security all year round. However, there are limited research efforts on exploiting camel milk potential and its promotion for consumption and marketing. Thus, a cross-sectional survey was conducted on 100 camel herders; nine traders and three cooperatives during March to April 2017 in Afar region of Ethiopia. Besides, discussions were held with district leaders, end consumers and local elders. Collected data were analysed using descriptive statistical tools, figures and diagrams. The survey result revealed that 56.6% camel herds were lactating. Milking was done by men twice (67%) and three times (33%) per day with an average of 4.2 L per camel. A total of 82% of the camel herders were marketers, and women were dominant. Camel herders sold an average of 14.3 L milk per day at an average price of USD 0.95 per litre, whereas middlemen sold an average of 35.8 L at USD 1.22 per litre. The milk trade was done at herders’ farm gate (18.3%), main road-sides (58.5%) and nearest towns (23.2%) using small plastic pots (68.3%) and plastic jerrycans (31.7%). Amongst the three marketing channels, 69.9% of the milk was directly sold to end consumers and fetched a higher price than other marketing channels, but the routes are limited to local markets. The camel herders perceived that they satisfied with milk for its nutritional, medicinal, social and economic values. Therefore, interventions need to focus on exploiting opportunities, addressing challenges/constraints in camel milk production and its marketing chain efficiency and effectiveness.

Awareness of Hygiene and Safety Practices on Raw Milk Produced and Consumed in Kiambu County, Kenya

Background: In Kenya Food safety has been a subject of concern in the recent past due to an increase in chronic illnesses. This was triggered by challenges in quality control, unregulated trade of milk by hawkers, and a minimal level of safety awareness among the farmers.
 Objective: The study was aimed at finding out awareness of safety practices on raw milk produced and consumed in Kiambu County. 
 Methods: A cross-section study was carried out, to examine hygiene standards and safety aspects among dairy farmers at Gatundu South Constituency, mainly in three regions namely Kiganjo, Gatei and Gatundu town. Purposive sampling technique was used to select 33 participants in each locality.
 Results: The study showed small scale farmers accounted for (98%) who keep 2 to 3 cows. The quality assurance of the products accounted for more than (97%) hence not significant (p>0.05). The record management at the farm level had less than 40% of farmers, hence no significance difference (p>0.05). The milk rejection accounted for 97%, and there was a significant ((p˂0.05)). In contamination with antibiotics and preservatives. Brokers who vend milk in the sub-urban centers in Thika town, Ruiru town, and Nairobi accounted for (14%)... The use of health records was not a priority among the farmers, coupled with irregular withdrawal periods; ranging from 48 hours to 72 hours.
 Conclusion: Hygiene standards and safety aspects among dairy farmers in Kiambu County are compromised. Subsequently, there is a need to enforce controls in; informal marketing channels, besides training, infrastructural development, code of practice and inspections to enhance the quality and safety of dairy products along the supply chain.

THE INTRA-EUROPEAN UNION TRADE OF MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS

The study analyzed the intra-European Union trade of milk and dairy products in 1998–2017. The volume of intra-EU imports and exports, the balance of trade and the share of imports and exports of milk and dairy products in total EU trade in the EU in 2000–2017 were analyzed. In addition, the price of 1 kg of milk and dairy products imported and exported in the EU’s internal market in 2015–2017 was presented in the EU countries (EUR). Tabular, graphical and descriptive statistics were used in the work. In 2004–2014, the volume of intra-EU exports exceeded imports. In turn, in 2015–2017 a strong downward trend and an increase in the surplus of imports over the exports of milk and dairy products on the EU’s internal markets is noticeable.

Milk and the Victorians: The Problem of Adulteration

Milk and the Victorians: The Problem of Adulteration Chris Otter (bio) “Milk may be regarded as a model food, and as a complete food,” declared the analytical chemist George Wigner in 1884. “It is a model food because it is nature’s own food, designed for the sustenance of the young of animals, and, as such, it contains and furnishes all the nutritive properties in due proportion required by a growing animal” (3). British consumption levels of this “model food” were rising in the Victorian period, even if they lagged behind much of northern Europe and the United States. One 1902 estimate suggested that average milk consumption in London had doubled between 1884 and 1901, reaching two-fifths of a pint daily (Swan 89). Milk was, however, the most problematic of foodstuffs. While outlandish claims about the adulteration of milk, particularly the persistent myth about the nefarious addition of sheep’s brains, were almost certainly “utter fiction,” the addition of water and the removal of cream diluted milk’s nutritional quality and potentially exposed consumers to dangerous waterborne pathogens such as typhoid (Morton 72). William Savage, Medical Officer of Health for Somerset, concluded that milk was “fatally easy to adulterate,” and his choice of adverb was deliberate (80). The problem’s scale was first exposed by Arthur Hassall, in several Lancet exposés published between 1851 and 1854. In 1880, Londoners were estimated to be paying seventy to eighty thousand pounds annually for water sold as milk (“London Milk”). One 1892 estimate suggested that “between twenty and thirty thousand additional cows would be required if pure milk only were sold in London” (“Tricks of the London Milk Trade”). Adulteration, then, was both an economic and a public health problem. But how could chemists prove that a particular sample of milk was adulterated? Milk is a composite mixture of proteins, fats, sugars, minerals, vitamins, and trace elements coexisting in various states; it was perhaps “the most delicate and complex fluid in nature,” and was “not to be read like an open book, clearly printed, even by those who have been taught the alphabet” (Sheldon 97). The proportion of fat varied with the cow’s age, time after calving, diet, climate, and milking regimen (Hassall 390). It did not emerge from the cow in anything like a “standard” condition. Drawing a firm boundary between naturally weak and adulterated milk was “very difficult, if not absolutely impossible” (Long 43). Some scoffed at the idea that “normal milk” could be defined: “one might as well talk of a ‘normal potato,’ or a ‘normal cabbage,’ or a ‘normal pig’ ” (Voelcker 250). Chemists set out to find ways to calculate the ratio of fat to other solids. Since fats are lighter than the rest of milk, removing them caused milk’s specific gravity to rise. Water, however, is also lighter than milk, so adding it caused milk’s specific gravity to fall. This allowed for the estimation of either the amount of abstracted cream or of added water through the use [End Page 192] of rudimentary specific-gravity measuring implements: lactometers and creamometers. However, many analysts argued that such instruments were useless because they failed to distinguish between abstracted cream and added water. Moreover, cream could be removed and water added, producing a normal reading. Lactometry declined in popularity after 1880, and laboratory techniques that avoided specific-gravity measurements became more common (Atkins 65). Perhaps the most successful of these was the Babcock test (fig. 1): milk’s non-fatty solids were dissolved with sulphuric acid, and the fat was then separated in a centrifuge (Farrington and Woll 25). It was accurate, fast, and easy, although handling sulphuric acid required care (Farrington and Woll 6–7). Other new forms of testing included techniques of acidity measurement, refractive indices, and bacteriological analysis. The “normal” material composition of milk, below which adulteration could generally be assumed, was established by the 1890s. Paul Veith, the Aylesbury Dairy Company’s chief analyst, analyzed 120,540 samples over eleven years, concluding that normal milk contained 12.9% total solids, of which 4.1% was fat (85). Click for larger view View full resolution Fig. 1. “Milk and Cream Tester’s...

Value chain analysis and sanitary risks of the camel milk system supplying Nairobi city, Kenya

The camel milk trade in Kenya has evolved significantly from a small-scale business undertaken in local villages to its current status involving a large number of different stakeholders supplying urban towns, particularly Nairobi City. Despite the evident growth pattern, the supply of camel milk to Nairobi has largely remained informal, with minimal enforcement of regulations. The aim of this study was to characterise the camel milk system supplying Nairobi and assess its governance, main challenges and the potential food safety risk practices.A value chain analysis framework was used to carry out data collection between August 2014 and July 2015. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews with stakeholders operating in different nodes of the value chains.Three milk value chains supplying Nairobi were identified and mapped: the Isiolo chain, the Kajiado chain and the camel milk processing company chain. Overall, the results indicate that 94% of the milk supplied to Nairobi city is informally traded (traded without any effective regulation), while 6% originates from a formal milk processing company. In the informal chains, milk traders (mostly women) were reported to play a pivotal role in the organisation and daily functioning of the chains. The processing company had partly integrated activities and reported exporting 5% of their products to regional and international markets.Food safety themes identified were associated with i) lack of cold chain, ii) gaps in hygiene practices, particularly at farm and market levels, iii) consumption of raw camel milk, and iv) lack of food safety training, among other issues. Low level involvement by government agencies in enforcing stipulated food safety measures were reported in the informal chains, as these concentrate efforts in the regulation of dairy milk chains. Isiolo milk traders were identified as the dominant group, setting milk prices and providing sanctions.The framework and findings obtained can help future research and policy makers to reach informed decision about what to regulate, where to target and importantly how to make the camel milk value chain more efficient and safer.

Occurrence, molecular and antimicrobial resistance of Enterococcus spp. isolated from raw cow's milk trade by street trading in Meknes city, Morocco.

Enterococcus spp. belongs to a group of pathogens which are responsible for serious infections. This study aims at highlighting the raw milk microbiological contamination and at providing data for prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Enterococcus spp. isolated from raw cow's milk marketed (without any pasteurization) by street traders. During the period of May 2015 through April 2016, 150 cow's raw milk samples were collected from street traders in Meknes city. They were examined for the identification of Enterococcus spp. using biochemical tests and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The antimicrobial susceptibility of the isolates was determined. The results showed that 11.3% (17/150) of samples were positive for the presence of Enterococcus spp., of which 64.7% were identified as Enterococcus faecalis, 17.6% as Enterococcus faecium, 11.8% as Enterococcus durans and 5.9% as Enterococcus hirae. The antimicrobial susceptibility showed that all Enterococcus spp. were resistant to ampicillin. The species E. faecalis, E. faecium, E. durans and E. hirae were resistant to streptomycin, with percentages of 52.9% (9/17), 11.8% (2/17), 11.8% (2/17), and 5.9% (1/17) respectively. All isolated strains of E. faecalis and E. faecium were resistant to tetracycline. The multiple antibiotic resistance index was elevated in the majority of Enterococcus spp., reaching values higher than 0.5, indicating a risk for public health. This study shows that the raw milk consumed by the population is contaminated with strains of Enterococcus resistant to antibiotics used in breeding for prophylactic purposes. This requires raising the awareness of those involved in the production and marketing of milk, so as to take measures to apply good hygienic practices and rationalize the use of zootechnical antibiotics.

Entry Into the Common Market of the European Union in Terms of Czech Republic's Foreign Trade with Dairy Products

The aim of the paper is to evaluate the development of the Czech foreign trade in milk and milk products and specify the typical features and consequences within its territorial and commodity structure using a specific system of indicators intended to show a relevant image on the topic. The analysis covers the period between 1999 and 2015 and are interpreted in the context of changes of the business environment that have occurred in the last two decades, particularly in relation to the Czech Republic’s entry into the European Union. Throughout the studied period, the Czech Republic revealed a positive balance of trade in milk and dairy products, as well as favourable values of TC index (value of coverage of import by export). The dynamics of the territorial structure of export and import is embodied in the overall trade dynamics between the Czech Republic and countries of EU-28. The Czech Republic’s entry into the EU common market, however, led to a change in the trading milk product structure. As a negative is regarded the fact that the structure of Czech export to the EU countries has changed and that is mainly concentrated on basic raw milk or dairy products of the first phase of processing with relatively low added value.

Struktura izvoza i uvoza mleka i mlečnih proizvoda iz Srbije

The structure of the milk supply market depends on processing capacities in Serbia, which are more oriented to the production of dairy products pasteurized and sterilized milk and fermented dairy products (yoghurt, cream, sour milk, etc.), while the production of solid dairy products (cheeses, cream, spreads, butter, powdered milk, etc.) is significantly lower. Taking into consideration the current situation in Serbia regarding the primary production, purchase and processing of milk, an overview is given of the foreign trade balance of milk and dairy products and their participation in exports and imports. The analysis of the foreign trade of milk and dairy products for the period 2007- 2017 highlights products that are exported and have stable export tendencies, as well as scarce products which are imported and have a markedly negative balance sheet in the observed period. We also analyzed major export-import destinations of Serbia for the trade exchange of milk and dairy products, which primarily refers to the CEFTA countries, the European Union and the Russian Federation.

The Biodiversity of the Microbiota Producing Heat-Resistant Enzymes Responsible for Spoilage in Processed Bovine Milk and Dairy Products.

Raw bovine milk is highly nutritious as well as pH-neutral, providing the ideal conditions for microbial growth. The microbiota of raw milk is diverse and originates from several sources of contamination including the external udder surface, milking equipment, air, water, feed, grass, feces, and soil. Many bacterial and fungal species can be found in raw milk. The autochthonous microbiota of raw milk immediately after milking generally comprises lactic acid bacteria such as Lactococcus, Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, and Leuconostoc species, which are technologically important for the dairy industry, although they do occasionally cause spoilage of dairy products. Differences in milking practices and storage conditions on each continent, country and region result in variable microbial population structures in raw milk. Raw milk is usually stored at cold temperatures, e.g., about 4°C before processing to reduce the growth of most bacteria. However, psychrotrophic bacteria can proliferate and contribute to spoilage of ultra-high temperature (UHT) treated and sterilized milk and other dairy products with a long shelf life due to their ability to produce extracellular heat resistant enzymes such as peptidases and lipases. Worldwide, species of Pseudomonas, with the ability to produce these spoilage enzymes, are the most common contaminants isolated from cold raw milk although other genera such as Serratia are also reported as important milk spoilers, while for others more research is needed on the heat resistance of the spoilage enzymes produced. The residual activity of extracellular enzymes after high heat treatment may lead to technological problems (off flavors, physico-chemical instability) during the shelf life of milk and dairy products. This review covers the contamination patterns of cold raw milk in several parts of the world, the growth potential of psychrotrophic bacteria, their ability to produce extracellular heat-resistant enzymes and the consequences for dairy products with a long shelf life. This problem is of increasing importance because of the large worldwide trade in fluid milk and milk powder.

An overview of constraint analysis for improvement of dairy farming profession in India

Strategic planning of various projects and schemes regarding dairy farming made India, a top milk producer of the world. The history of these projects is very inserting and important for future planning to achieve new benchmarks in dairy sector. Since, India lags behind in global trade of milk and milk products, the different constraints of dairy farming in various regions of India need to take care of in order to enhance desired growth and economy in dairy sector.

Characterization of quality of raw milk and pasteurized commercialized informally in Colorado do Oeste City, RO, Brazil

Milk quality can be characterized by physicochemical parameters indicating possible changes in the product properties. The poor quality of milk may affect human health and compromise the shelf life of the product. The objective of this study was to characterize the physicochemical quality of milk and to perform reductase testing of twenty four samples of raw milk and of twelve samples of pasteurized milk being informally commercialized in the city of Colorado do Oeste, RO. The density, the cryoscopic index, the fat (using the method of Gerber), the acidity (in Dornic degrees), and the defatted solids (SNG) (according to official methods) were evaluated accoring to the Normative Instruction 68. The results of cryoscopy and density, showed that 27% (n = 10) and 27% (n = 10) of the samples, respectively, do not comply with the IN-62 criteria. For the content of defatted solids, 19% of the samples were at odds with the legislation. The assessment of physicochemical parameters suggest that the informal trade of milk in the studied retail outlets can compromise the integrity of the product, a problem that might be solved by correcting and intensifying enforcement actions.

Physico-chemical characterisation of some samples of fresh milk and milk powder

Abstract Milk consumption is important in the diet of all age groups because it provides important nutrients that are essential for humans. Children are the largest consumers of milk, thus, it’s very important that milk is free of toxic compounds that can be harmful for humans. Aim of the study was to determine the physico-chemical characteristics of some samples of milk powder for different stage of baby growing and for some samples of fresh milk: raw cow’s milk, milk trade and UHT type. The following physico-chemical properties: density, pH, acidity, the presence of acetone, enzymes, antiseptics, dry substance, the ash, total fat, saponification and peroxide index, total nitrogen and protein content were determined. Comparing the values of acidity for analyzed samples it can be concluded that the powder milk acidity value is much lower than the fresh milk. The presence of antiseptics and acetone was not identified, and amylase and peroxidase were found only in raw cow's milk. The highest protein content was found for milk powder (27.22%).

Reprint of “Decision support for risks managers in the case of deliberate food contamination: The dairy industry as an example”

Dairy farms were identified, which can be included in a contingency plan set up to prevent or mitigate the consequences of deliberate contamination of a food supply chain. The deliberate introduction of a contamination into the supply chain of milk was simulated in a scenario where milk producers serve as the entry sources and consumers of milk represent the target to be affected by the contamination. It is shown that the entry sources have an impact on the damage caused, i.e. in terms of the number of consumers reached. A contingency plan is provided that contains a list of entry sources ranked according to their impact on the damage to consumers. To generate this list, a computer program was developed that simulates the impact of the contaminations on consumers via the trade of contaminated milk. Possible variations in the trade links between milk producers, dairies and consumers as well as between dairies are considered. It is investigated how these trade links alter the generated list of entry sources.The results indicate that, regardless of the actual milk trade flow, control measures should be introduced on 39% of the milk producers in order to minimize the damage. The identification of suitable entry sources may help risk managers to focus on these farms in a contingency plan that improves the sensitivity of control activities related to deliberate contamination.

Milking Science for its Worth: The Reform of the British Milk Trade in the Late Nineteenth Century

This article examines the late nineteenth-century process whereby elite British dairy companies used the tools and the rhetoric of scientific management to gain market hegemony, marginalizing small and often rural dairy farmers. This was in the context of increased parliamentary demands for the regulation of the milk industry fueled by fears of milk-borne disease and the nutritional quality of cow’s milk. Whereas historians have assumed that dairy farmers were resistant to central oversight, elite and self-labeled progressive companies such, as the Aylesbury Dairy Company in London, used agricultural science to become drivers in agricultural reform. While that change was not without significant pushback from small-scale dairy farmers, the most pressing problem was that a wide variety of scientific experts vied for agricultural expertise on cow’s milk, including veterinarians, medical officers of health, chemists, and bacteriologists. These burgeoning professions competed and jostled for authority even as they were being used by elite companies to reorganize the British dairy industry.

Changes in the EU and Global Milk and Dairy Products Market in View of Multilateral Trade Liberalisation

The aim of this article is to present the situation of the milk and dairy products market in the EU countries and in the countries which are the world’s major milk producers in view of changes caused by the potential liberalisation of the global milk trade. The volume of trade in milk and dairy products, as well as production, demand and prices paid by consumers were analysed. The study uses the general equilibrium model of the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP). Projections were made according to the propositions included in the modalities negotiated at the World Trade Organisation forum in December 2008. It was proved that the progressing liberalisation of foreign trade may increase the competitive pressure both on regional markets and on the global market. In consequence, the dairy producers and processors from the EU countries may lose part of the market to the suppliers from the countries with lower costs of production. Such countries as New Zealand, the USA, Brazil and China may benefit from the liberalization.

Decision support for risks managers in the case of deliberate food contamination: The dairy industry as an example

Dairy farms were identified, which can be included in a contingency plan set up to prevent or mitigate the consequences of deliberate contamination of a food supply chain. The deliberate introduction of a contamination into the supply chain of milk was simulated in a scenario where milk producers serve as the entry sources and consumers of milk represent the target to be affected by the contamination. It is shown that the entry sources have an impact on the damage caused, i.e. in terms of the number of consumers reached. A contingency plan is provided that contains a list of entry sources ranked according to their impact on the damage to consumers. To generate this list, a computer program was developed that simulates the impact of the contaminations on consumers via the trade of contaminated milk. Possible variations in the trade links between milk producers, dairies and consumers as well as between dairies are considered. It is investigated how these trade links alter the generated list of entry sources.The results indicate that, regardless of the actual milk trade flow, control measures should be introduced on 39% of the milk producers in order to minimize the damage. The identification of suitable entry sources may help risk managers to focus on these farms in a contingency plan that improves the sensitivity of control activities related to deliberate contamination.

Food quality and the circulation time of commodities: lessons from the British milk trade 1845–1914

The major resurgence of transport geography over the last two decades has provided us with important insights and knowledge on the spatial aspects of transportation under global capitalism. In spite of its substantial progress, however, the sub-disciple has tended to study the movement of goods in abstraction from their physical properties and to conceptualize commodities as fixed and unchanging. Although this assumption is a reasonable one for a great many commodities, it is less so for more perishable goods, especially food. In an attempt to develop this insight further, this article argues that transport geography needs to pay more attention to the relationship between space–time processes and the physical properties of goods in transit. I investigate this relationship through a study of the development and social impacts of the milk trade in Britain c.1845–1914.