Food Toxins Research Articles

Nanostructured zirconia@reduced graphene oxide based ultraefficient nanobiosensing platform for food toxin detection

Schematic representation of the fabrication steps of the BSA/anti-AFB1/APTES/nZrO2@RGO/ITO immunoelectrode.

Complementing Food and Nutrition Security Using Toxin Minimizing Dry Chain and Integrated Pest Management: A Review

Global programs are involved to improve food and nutrition security in the low-and middle-income countries (LMICs). Increasing agrobiodiversity by maintaining local genetic resources has been proposed to achieve food and nutrition security. However, technology to maintain local germplasms/seed stocks are not available to the smallholders. This inability to save seeds translates into 25% annual low moisture food losses to rainfall/floods. As moisture builds up in improperly stored foods, insects, and carcinogenic molds proliferate along with nutrient loss. A dry chain (drying and moisture-proof packaging) could minimize these losses and even enable disaster resiliency. About 40% high moisture foods (fruits and vegetables) are lost due to lack of the cold chain facilities. Additionally, most people in the LMICs ingest artificial toxins daily through high moisture foods due to improper pesticide use. The prevalence of health compromising food toxins in nutritious foods has been complicating malnutrition alleviation efforts in the LMICs. Adopting Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies followed by sensitive monitoring could reduce pesticide residues to CODEX standards and enable healthy food systems. A way forward to achieve quality food and nutrition security in the post-Covid-19 era with a particular reference to LMICs like Nepal is presented.

Monitoring Alternaria toxins in Italian food to support upcoming regulation

ABSTRACT The collection of occurrence data on Alternaria toxins in food and feed across the European countries is required since 2012 by the European Commission, endorsing the relevant scientific opinion by the EFSA CONTAM Panel. Within this framework, occurrence data for Alternaria toxins (Alternariol, Alternariol monomethyl ether, Tenuazonic acid, Tentoxin, and Altenuene) in 97 samples of cereal foods, tomato products, and sunflower seeds have been provided as requested by the Italian national monitoring programme (years 2017–2020). To this purpose, an LC-MS/MS method was set up and validated, obtaining fit for purpose sensitivity, recoveries (70–120%), repeatability (≤20%) and within laboratory reproducibility (≤26%). Occurrence data showed that oilseeds were the most contaminated food group with levels of Tenuazonic acid up to 16752 µg/kg and Tentoxin up to 570 µg/kg, whereas for the other mycotoxin/commodities combinations, the percentage of left censored data (below the limit of quantification) ranged from 74 to 100%.

Risk Profiling of Fumonisin in Corn (Zea mays L.) to the Filipino Consuming Population

The Fusarium fungus is known to produce fumonisin, a naturally occurring mycotoxin associated with chronic adverse health effects in animal liver and kidney, which is commonly found in corn (Zea mays L.), one of the major agricultural crops and staple foods in the Philippines. The objective of this study was to develop a profile of the potential risks associated with the consumption of corn contaminated with fumonisins B1 (FB1) and B2 (FB2). This study involved the determination of data gaps in the risk profiling process; identification, and characterization of fumonisin; estimation of the dietary exposure (DE) and risk based on identified uncertainties, variabilities, and assumptions; and determination of available risk management options for fumonisin in corn. Fumonisin levels of corn samples (n = 77) were all below the 4000 μg/kg maximum level (ML) set in the 2019 edition of the Codex General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Foods (Codex GSCTFF) for raw corn grains. At the 97.5th percentile consumption of corn [yellow, white, green (or sweet) corn; edible portions (corn kernels)], the calculated DE estimates of the Filipino adult (20–59 yr old) exceeded the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 2 μg/kg bw (body weight)/d by 420.17% (maximum FB1), 194.30% (maximum FB2), and 189.81% (overall FB1 mean). Considering the assumptions made and the gathered data in this study, the estimated DE to fumonisin in corn showed an appreciable risk to health. The current ML of fumonisin in corn and corn products adopted from Codex GSCTFF may be in need to be revisited to ensure the protection of the adult Filipino consuming population.

Risk Profiling of 3-MCPD (3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol) in Soy Sauce to the Adult Filipino Consuming Population

Soy sauce is one of the commonly consumed food items in the Philippines because of its vast applications as a regular sauce and a condiment in various food dishes. One method used to produce soy sauce is chemical hydrolysis that involves acid hydrolysis of vegetable protein under high temperatures, which may generate a chemical by-product called 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD). Exposure to 3-MCPD may potentially cause adverse health effects to humans such as kidney, liver, and reproductive organ failure, as well as infertility and carcinogenicity. Thus, this study aimed to establish a profile on the potential risk associated with the consumption of soy sauce with 3-MCPD in the Philippines. This study included risk profile conceptualization, literature review, and identification of uncertainties and variabilities to formulate assumptions, which were then used in the dietary exposure (DE) assessment and estimation of risk of the adult Filipino consuming population to 3-MCPD in soy sauce. Analysis showed that the soy sauce samples (n = 19) collected from identified supermarkets and wet markets in the Philippines contained 3-MCPD levels below the maximum level (ML) of 0.4 mg/kg set by the 2019 edition of the Codex General Standards for Contaminants and Toxins in Food and Feed. With these generated data on the hazard levels, the high consumer (97.5th) percentile soy sauce consumption data from the Philippine Department of Science and Technology–Food and Nutrition Research Institute (DOST-FNRI), and the assumed body weight of an adult Asian, the DE of the adult Filipino consuming population to 3-MCPD in soy sauce was estimated to be 0.0327–0.1636 µg/kg body weight (bw)/d, which was lower than 4 µg/kg bw – the latest provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) in 2016. Based on these findings, the consumption of soy sauce showed no appreciable risk to the health of the Filipino consuming population.

An Aptamer-Array-Based Sample-to-Answer Biosensor for Ochratoxin A Detection via Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer

Food toxins are a hidden threat that can cause cancer and tremendously impact human health. Therefore, the detection of food toxins in a timely manner with high sensitivity is of paramount importance for public health and food safety. However, the current detection methods are relatively time-consuming and not practical for field tests. In the present work, we developed a novel aptamer-chip-based sample-to-answer biosensor (ACSB) for ochratoxin A (OTA) detection via fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). In this system, a cyanine 3 (Cy3)-labeled OTA-specific biotinylated aptamer was immobilized on an epoxy-coated chip via streptavidin-biotin binding. A complementary DNA strand to OTA aptamer at the 3′-end was labeled with a black hole quencher 2 (BHQ2) to quench Cy3 fluorescence when in proximity. In the presence of OTA, the Cy3-labeled OTA aptamer bound specifically to OTA and led to the physical separation of Cy3 and BHQ2, which resulted in an increase of fluorescence signal. The limit of detection (LOD) of this ACSB for OTA was 0.005 ng/mL with a linearity range of 0.01–10 ng/mL. The cross-reactivity of ACSB against other mycotoxins, ochratoxin B (OTB), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEA), or deoxynilvalenol (DON), was less than 0.01%. In addition, this system could accurately detect OTA in rice samples spiked with OTA, and the mean recovery rate of the spiked-in OTA reached 91%, with a coefficient of variation (CV) of 8.57–9.89%. Collectively, the ACSB may represent a rapid, accurate, and easy-to-use platform for OTA detection with high sensitivity and specificity.

Double Isothermal Amplification and CRISPR-Cas12a for Sensitive Detection of Citrinin

An analytical method is developed for ultrasensitive detection of citrinin using double isothermal amplification and CRISPR-Cas12a. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) modified with antigen and thiol-terminated, single-strand DNA (ssDNA) are used as a probe. The antigen-modified AuNPs compete with citrinin to bind to magnetic beads coated with an anticitrinin antibody. After a simple magnetic separation, the AuNPs are collected, and the ssDNA are released after they are washed with a dithiothreitol solution. The ssDNA is first amplified by an exponential amplification reaction and then used as a primer in a subsequent hybridization chain reaction to produce double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) that contains a protospacer adjacent motif to allow recognition by CRISPR-Cas12a. The dsDNA activates the Cas12a-gRNA to cleave a reporter ssDNA to generate a fluorescence signal. The developed analytical method has a low detection limit (0.127 ng mL–1) and a wide linear range (0.005–500 μg mL–1) for detection of citrinin. For detection of citrinin in oat and flour, recoveries of 97–104% and 105–111% are obtained, respectively. By combining double isothermal amplification with CRISPR-Cas12a, ultrahigh sensitivity and selectivity can be achieved for detection of toxins in food.

Rapid point-of-need detection of bacteria and their toxins in food using gold nanoparticles.

Biosensors need to meet the rising food industry demand for sensitive, selective, safe, and fast food safety quality control. Disposable colorimetric sensors based on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and localized surface plasmon resonance are low-cost and easy-to-perform devices intended for rapid point-of-need measurements. Recent studies demonstrate various facile and versatile AuNPs-based analytical platforms for the detection of bacteria and their toxins in milk, meat, and other foods. In this review, we introduce the general characteristics and mechanisms of AuNPs calorimetric biosensors, and highlight optimizations needed to strengthen and improve the quality of devices for their application in food matrices.

Knowledge and Attitude of Consumers about Natural Food Toxins: A Case of Tertiary Students in the Volta Region of Ghana

Background: Natural Food Toxins (NFTs) are poisonous substances produced by the biological processes of living organisms. This study aimed to evaluate the knowledge and attitude of tertiary students of the Volta Region of Ghana about NFTs.
 Methods: During March to June 2020, semi-structured questionnaires were used to examine knowledge and attitudes about NFTs among 252 tertiary students from various institutions of the Volta Region of Ghana. Data were statistically analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 20.0.
 Results: A majority (90.48%) of students were aware of the NFTs. The male students showed significantly (p<0.05) greater knowledge than the females. Totally, 190 out of 252 (75.40%) respondents had prior-to-the-study knowledge about NFTs. Also, 245 out of 252 (97.22%) respondents desired to learn more about NFTs.
 Conclusion: From this study, it was observed that tertiary students from the various institutions in the Volta Region of Ghana had enough knowledge and attitude about NFTs; but there are still slight deficits in the knowledge of students about types of NFTs. Hence, there is a need for more sensitization of the subject among the students and throughout the general public.

Rapid point-of-need detection of bacteria and their toxins in food using gold nanoparticles

Rapid point-of-need detection of bacteria and their toxins in food using gold nanoparticles

Advances in the Immunoassays for Detection of Bacillus thuringiensis Crystalline Toxins

Insect-resistant genetically modified organisms have been globally commercialized for the last 2 decades. Among them, transgenic crops based on Bacillus thuringiensis crystalline (Cry) toxins are extensively used for commercial agricultural applications. However, less emphasis is laid on quantifying Cry toxins because there might be unforeseen health and environmental concerns. Immunoassays, being the preferred method for detection of Cry toxins, are reviewed in this study. Owing to limitations of traditional colorimetric enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, the trend of detection strategies shifts to modified immunoassays based on nanomaterials, which provide ultrasensitive detection capacity. This review assessed and compared the properties of the recent advances in immunoassays, including colorimetric, fluorescence, chemiluminescence, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, surface plasmon resonance, and electrochemical approaches. Thus, the ultimate aim of this study is to identify research gaps and infer future prospects of current approaches for the development of novel immunosensors to monitor Cry toxins in food and the environment.

Determination of Alternaria Toxins in Tomato, Wheat, and Sunflower Seeds by SPE and LC-MS/MS-A Method Validation Through a Collaborative Trial.

Background Alternaria toxins are ubiquitous contaminants in highly consumed food products. Therefore, they are candidates to be regulated by EU legislation. In this context, the availability of reliable analytical methods is a keystone both for protecting the health of citizens and smooth functioning of the European market.ObjectiveThis paper describes an advanced LC-MS/MS method based on isotope dilution quantification suitable for the determination of altenuene, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, tenuazonic acid, and tentoxin in tomato puree, wheat, and sunflower seeds.MethodsThe method has been validated in an interlaboratory study that included the analysis of both spiked and naturally contaminated food commodities. Twenty-three participants contributed with analytical data.ResultsThe average recoveries and relative standard deviations for repeatability and reproducibility obtained across the tested matrixes were: 97, 8.0, and 23%, for altenuene, respectively; 95, 9.2, and 17% for alternariol, respectively; 98, 6.4, and 13% for alternariol monomethyl ether, respectively; 97, 4.2, and 9.3% for tenuazonic acid, respectively; and 102, 5.6, and 15% for tentoxin, respectively. The method enabled the determination of all tested Alternaria toxins close to or below 1 µg/kg.ConclusionOverall, the method showed a satisfactory trueness and precision, complying with the requirements for the monitoring of mycotoxins in food in the EU. It is currently under evaluation by the European Committee for Standardization for adoption as a standard method.HighlightsIsotope dilution mass spectrometry method for the determination of Alternaria toxins in food.

Exposure assessment of treated greywater reused for irrigation

Abstract The aim of the study was to assess the risk of exposure of treated greywater reused for irrigation. It consisted of untreated and treated greywater quality analysis and heavy metal exposure assessment. After treatment with a local conventional stabilization pond, parameters such as BOD, COD, Zn, and Pb dropped to 35.63, 9.95, 0.011, and 0.001 mg/L, respectively. Total coliform and fecal coliform decreased to 23,417 and 5,666 MPN/100 mL, respectively. These results showed almost all detected contaminants in treated greywater were minimized and did not exceed Thailand's standard and World Health Organization guidelines. After that, treated greywater was reused for irrigation. There were three vegetable plots: treated greywater, tap water with fertilizer, and tap water. There were seven edible plants, four leafy and three fruiting vegetables, cultivated in each plot. Zn, Pb, Cd, Cu, and Hg were detected depending on the kind of plant; for example, the maximum concentration was found in leafy vegetables. However, the concentrations of contaminants did not exceed the Codex standard for contaminants and toxins in foods and Thailand's standard. Risk characterization showed no risk with a hazard quotient far less than 1. Therefore, treated greywater reuse could be considered to promote sustainable water management in the community.

Smartphone videoscopy: Recent progress and opportunities for biosensing

Abstract Smartphone is emerging as a portable analytical biosensing platform in many point-of-care (POC) applications such as disease diagnostics, environmental monitoring, and food toxin screening. With the recent advancement of imaging technologies on the smartphone, the manual control of acquisition settings (e.g., exposure time, frame rate, focusing distance, etc.) has already been expanded from the photo to the video capturing mode. In modern smartphone models, high frame rate (above 100 fps) can be achieved to bring in a new temporal dimension to the smartphone-supported POC tests by recording high-definition videos. This opens up a new analytical method defined as smartphone videoscopy. In this review, the recent development of smartphone videoscopy is summarized based on different POC applications. Representative examples of smartphone videoscopy systems and how these time-dependent measurements could open up new opportunities for POC diagnostics are discussed in detail. The advances demonstrated so far illustrate the promising future of smartphone videoscopy in biosensing, POC diagnostics, and time-resolved analysis in general.

High resolution mass spectrometry workflow for the analysis of food contaminants: Application to plant toxins, mycotoxins and phytoestrogens in plant-based ingredients

ABSTRACT An analytical workflow including mass spectral library, generic sample preparation, chromatographic separation, and analysis by high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) was developed to gain insight into the occurrence of plant toxins, mycotoxins and phytoestrogens in plant-based food. This workflow was applied to 156 compounds including 90 plant toxins (pyrrolizidine alkaloids, tropane alkaloids, glycoalkaloids, isoquinoline alkaloids and aristolochic acids), 54 mycotoxins (including ergot alkaloids and Alternaria toxins) and 12 phytoestrogens (including isoflavones, lignans and coumestan) in plant-based protein ingredients, cereal and pseudo-cereal products. A mass spectral library was built based on fragmentation spectra collected at 10 different collision energies in both positive and negative ionisation modes for each toxin. Emphasis was put on a generic QuEChERS-like sample preparation followed by ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography using alkaline mobile phase allowing the separation of more than 50 toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids. HRMS acquisition comprised a full-scan event for toxins detection followed by data-dependent MS2 for toxin identification against mass spectrum. Method performance was evaluated using fortified samples in terms of sensitivity, repeatability, reproducibility and recovery. All toxins were positively identified at levels ranging from 1 µg kg−1 to 100 µg kg−1. Quantitative results obtained by a standard addition approach met SANTE/12682/2019 criteria for 132 out of 156 toxins. Such a workflow using generic, sensitive and selective multi-residue method allows a better insight into the occurrence of regulated and non-regulated toxins in plant-based foods and to conduct safety evaluation and risk assessments when needed.

Analysis of Multiple Mycotoxins in the Qatari Population and Their Relation to Markers of Oxidative Stress.

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring food toxins worldwide that can cause serious health effects. The measurement of mycotoxin biomarkers in biological fluids is needed to assess individuals’ exposure. The aim of this study was to investigate the incidence of mycotoxins in the Qatari population. Serum samples from 412 adults and urinary samples from 559 adults were analyzed for the presence of mycotoxin biomarkers. Multimycotoxin approaches have been applied, using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry methods. Samples were further analyzed for the oxidative stress markers and compared with regard to the incidence of mycotoxins. The presence of mycotoxins was identified in 37% of serum samples and in less than 20% of urine samples. It was found that 88% of positive of the samples were positive for only one mycotoxin, while 12% of positive samples had two or more mycotoxins. Trichothecenes and zearalenone metabolites were most commonly detected mycotoxins, followed by aflatoxins, roquefortine C and mycophenolic acid. The presence of mycotoxins was found to positively correlate with oxidative stress markers. The obtained results illustrate the importance of mycotoxin biomonitoring studies in humans and the need to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of mycotoxin-induced toxicity.

Novel Nondestructive Biosensors for the Food Industry.

An increasing number of foodborne outbreaks, growing consumer desire for healthier products, and surging numbers of food allergy cases necessitate strict handling and screening of foods at every step of the food supply chain. Current standard procedures for detecting food toxins, contaminants, allergens, and pathogens require costly analytical devices, skilled technicians, and long sample preparation times. These challenges can be overcome with the use of biosensors because they provide accurate, rapid, selective, qualitative, and quantitative detection of analytes. Their ease of use, low-cost production, portability, and nondestructive measurement techniques also enable on-site detection of analytes. For this reason, biosensors find many applications in food safety and quality assessments. The detection mechanisms of biosensors can be varied with the use of different transducers, such as optical, electrochemical, or mechanical. These options provide a more appropriate selection of the biosensors for the intended use. In this review, recent studies focusing on the fabrication of biosensors for food safety or food quality purposes are summarized. To differentiate the detection mechanisms, the review is divided into sections based on the transducer type used.

A rapid and accurate method for screening T-2 toxin in food and feed using competitive AlphaLISA

T-2 is a common mycotoxin contaminating cereal crops. Chronic consumption of food contaminated with T-2 toxin can lead to death, so simple and accurate detection methods in food and feed are necessary. In this paper, we establish a highly sensitive and accurate method for detecting T-2 toxin using AlphaLISA. The system consists of acceptor beads labeled with T-2-bovine serum albumin (BSA), streptavidin-labeled donor beads, and biotinylated T-2 antibodies. T-2 in the sample matrix competes with T-2-BSA for antibodies. Adding biotinylated antibodies to the test well followed by T-2 and T-2-BSA acceptor beads yielded a detection range of 0.03-500ng/mL. The half-maximal inhibitory concentration was 2.28ng/mL and the coefficient of variation was <10%. In addition, this method had no cross-reaction with other related mycotoxins. This optimized method for extracting T-2 from food and feed samples achieved a recovery rate of approximately 90% in T-2 concentrations as low as 1ng/mL, better than the performance of a commercial ELISA kit. This competitive AlphaLISA method offers high sensitivity, good specificity, good repeatability, and simple operation for detecting T-2 toxin in food and feed.

Special Issue "Interplay between Fungal Pathogens and Harvested Crops and Fruits".

The interplay between fungal pathogens and harvest crops is important in determining the extent of food losses following the storage and transport of crops to consumers. The specific factors modulating the activation of colonization are of key importance to determining the initiation of fungal colonization and host losses. It is clear nowadays from the wide number of transcription studies in colonized fruits that pathogenicity in postharvest produce is not only the result of activation of fungal pathogenicity factors but is significantly contributed to fruit maturity and ripening. In this editorial summary of the Special Issue “Interplay between Fungal Pathogens and Harvested Crops and Fruits”, we present a short summary of future research directions on the importance of the interplay between fruit and pathogens and nine published papers (one review and eight original research papers), covering a wide range of subjects within the mechanism of pathogenicity by postharvest pathogens, including transcriptome analysis of pathogenesis, pathogenicity factors, new antifungal compounds and food toxin occurrence by pathogens. This summary may lead the reader to understand the key factors modulating pathogenicity in fruits.

Nanotechnology in Detection of Food Toxins – Focus on the Dairy Products

Nanotechnology is the field of science which has been recently applied in different field of biomedical sciences, targeted drug delivery, imaging, theranostics, etc. The vast surface area to volume ratio of engineered nanostructures is utilized for designing many biosensors. Food production, processing, packaging, storage, and transport engage many kinds of chemicals and materials that may contribute some harmful effects on human health. These altogether are named as food toxins if their amount exceeds the safe limits for human consumption. We have searched the relevant articles in PubMed and Google scholar to write this review and selected the appropriate articles to prepare the manuscript. The detection of such food toxins can be done using conventional methods, but their sensitivity, time, and limit of detection and cost cost-effectiveness are a matter of concern. Nanotechnology has been used for designing different kinds of biosensors to overcome the barriers of low sensitivity. In this review, we will discuss nanotechnology's application in the detection of different kinds of food toxins, especially dairy products.