This study investigated the potential of Cucurbita moschata and Cucurbita maxima as functional ingredients in cookie formulations. Pumpkin powders were incorporated as partial wheat flour substitutes to evaluate their effects on the physicochemical, nutritional profile, and functional properties of cookies. The results showed that pumpkin incorporation improved moisture retention and water absorption capacity, contributing to enhanced technological performance of the dough and baked products. Nutritional analysis revealed significant increases in protein, dietary fiber, fat, ash, and carotenoid contents in enriched cookies compared with the control formulation.Texture profile analysis demonstrated variety-dependent effects. Cookies enriched with C. moschata showed increased hardness at lower substitution levels but a softening effect at higher concentrations, whereas C. maxima maintained relatively stable firmness across formulations. Thermal analysis indicated improved thermal stability in enriched cookies, while mineral analysis confirmed better retention of essential elements. Confocal laser scanning microscopy further revealed a more homogeneous ingredient distribution and stronger matrix integration in cookies containing C. maxima powder.Furthermore, the incorporation of pumpkin powders significantly enhanced the bioactive profile of cookies, as reflected by higher total polyphenol content and increased DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging activity. These results highlight the potential of pumpkin powders as valuable functional ingredients for improving both the nutritional quality and functional properties of bakery products. The study supports the development of nutritionally enriched cookies with enhanced health benefits and technological performance.

Incorporating ferulic acid (FA) into a polymeric hydrogel impairs its bioactive properties. The synthesis used in this study involved radical-mediated surface grafting of nanocellulose for 24 h, using 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO) to oxidize cellulose nanofibers (oCNF) and phosphorylated cellulose nanofibers (pCNF), resulting in total polyphenol contents of 30.6 and 6.3 mg/g, respectively. Spectroscopic analyses of oCNF included solid-state high-power decoupling with magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (13C HPDEC/MAS NMR), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), confirming that FA was successfully grafted onto the backbone through ester linkages on the nanofibril surface. Rheology testing and morphological analysis via transmission electron microscopy (TEM) further supported these findings. TEM imaging revealed that the grafting process preserved the nanoscale morphology, yielding fibrils with an average diameter of approximately 28.2 ± 9.3 nm. Key aspects affecting FA grafting include the colloidal stability of the CNF suspension, evaluated by zeta potential, and surface activation via oxidation. In this study, FA was grafted onto oCNF through a radical-induced reaction to enhance their functional performance, enabling the development of functional and sustainable hydrogels with high antioxidant capacity (85.62% ± 1.65%).

Oxidative stress contributes to skin damage and hyperpigmentation through excessive melanin production. Tyrosinase plays a central role in melanogenesis by catalyzing the oxidation of tyrosine to melanin precursors. Although several tyrosinase inhibitors are available, their clinical use is limited due to adverse effects. Therefore, identifying safer inhibitors with concomitant antioxidant properties remains of considerable interest. In ethnomedicine, Urtica urens L. (Urticaceae) is traditionally used to treat inflammatory conditions. This study aims to evaluate the antioxidant, tyrosinase inhibitory, and photoprotective activities of its ethanolic extract. Here, 80% ethanolic extract of U. urens aerial parts (E) was chemically characterized and standardized based on total polyphenol, flavonoid, and chlorogenic acid contents. Antioxidant activity was assessed by inhibiting UV-induced lipid peroxidation in egg yolk. Tyrosinase inhibitory activity was evaluated using mushroom tyrosinase, and kinetic analysis was conducted to determine the inhibition mechanism. The in vitro sun protection factor was also determined. E inhibited UV-induced lipid peroxidation (EC50 = 44.4 µg/mL) and exhibited tyrosinase inhibitory activity (EC50 = 1,016 µg/mL, relative to the maximal observed effect), with a mixed-type inhibition pattern. The extract also showed in vitro photoprotective capacity. Chlorogenic acid was identified as the major polyphenolic constituent; although it exhibited antioxidant and anti-tyrosinase activities, its concentration in the extract did not fully account for the overall inhibitory effect observed. The findings indicate that the biological activities of E likely result from the combined action of multiple phytochemical constituents. These findings support its potential as a source of bioactive compounds for cosmetic and dermatological applications targeting oxidative and pigmentation-related skin alterations.

Flavor modulation of fermented degummed coffee beans by ultrasound and ultra-high pressure: metabolomic and volatile profiles.

To evaluate the antibacterial activity of leaf extracts derived from Spathodea campanulata as an endodontic irrigant in both in vitro and ex vivo models against Enterococcus faecalis. Aqueous (AQESC), methanolic (MESC), ethanolic (EESC), acetonic (AESC), chloroformic (CESC), and hexanic (HESC) extracts derived from Spathodea campanulata were prepared. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) were determined. A well diffusion assay was employed to compare these extracts against Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29,212. Human single-rooted teeth were collected, standardized, and inoculated to facilitate the development of a four-week biofilm. These teeth were subsequently divided into three experimental groups, each receiving positive pressure irrigation with 1 mL of one of the following solutions: phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), 2.5% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), and the extract from Spathodea campanulata exhibiting the most favorable MIC, MBC, and inhibition halo in prior tests. Biofilm samples were harvested from the root canals to quantify colony-forming units (CFU). Moreover, the extracts were analyzed for their total flavonoid, phenol, polyphenol, and tannin contents. AQESC lacked MIC and MBC values, whereas the other extracts demonstrated MIC and MBC values within the range of 12.5 to 50µg/mL. AQESC, MESC, CESC, and HESC did not produce an inhibition halo at a concentration of 800mg/mL. Conversely, EESC and AESC at this concentration exhibited bactericidal activity, with no statistically significant difference between them, when compared to 2.5% NaOCl. EESC at 800mg/mL displayed the most superior antibacterial properties; consequently, this concentration was utilized in the ex vivo model. The analysis of CFU/mL revealed a significant reduction in the EESC group compared to 2.5% NaOCl (P < 0.0001). The extracts are abundant in flavonoids, phenols, polyphenols, and tannins, which may account for the observed results. The extracts of Spathodea campanulata exhibit bacteriostatic and bactericidal properties at low concentrations, with the exception of AQESC. The inhibition halo against Enterococcus faecalis at 800mg/mL of EESC and AESC is comparable to that produced by 2.5% NaOCl. Moreover, endodontic irrigation using 800mg/mL of EESC significantly decreases the CFU of Enterococcus faecalis compared to 2.5% NaOCl.

To evaluate the effect of polyphenol-rich hydroalcoholic extracts derived from the seeds of four tropical fruits-Paullinia cupana (guaraná), Euterpe oleracea (açaí), Byrsonima crassifolia (murici), and Bactris gasipaes (peach palm)-on dentin under erosive-abrasive conditions. Seed-derived hydroalcoholic extracts were prepared and chemically characterized in terms of total polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity using DPPH and ABTS assays. Human dentin specimens (n = 180) were subjected to an initial erosive challenge and randomly allocated into six experimental groups (n = 30). Treatments were applied prior to a 7-day erosive-abrasive cycling model. Dentin surface loss (dSL), collagen degradation (dCol), and calcium release (CaR) were quantitatively assessed, and surface morphology was qualitatively evaluated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's test (α = 0.05). Exploratory linear regression analyses were performed to assess the association between total polyphenol content and dentin outcomes. P. cupana and E. oleracea exhibited the highest polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity and were associated with significantly reduced dSL, dCol, and CaR compared with the untreated control (p < 0.05). Qualitative analysis suggested a more compact surface with reduced dentinal tubule exposure in these groups. B. crassifolia demonstrated moderate protective effects, whereas B. gasipaes showed limited efficacy. Exploratory regression analyses indicated a negative association between total polyphenol content and dentin outcomes. Polyphenol-rich extracts derived from tropical fruit seeds-particularly P. cupana and E. oleracea-were associated with protective effects on dentin under erosive-abrasive conditions, reducing mineral loss and collagen degradation. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear and should be further investigated in future studies. Plant-derived polyphenol-rich extracts may represent a promising adjunctive approach in preventive strategies for erosive tooth wear.

Centella asiatica extract is a potential source of bioactive compounds that are susceptible to degradation under processing and practical application conditions. Therefore, microencapsulation technology is an effective solution to protect the active compounds and improve their stability and release from Centella asiatica extract. This study aims to determine the optimal extraction conditions for Centella asiatica extract using ultrasound and to develop an alginate microencapsulation system for Centella asiatica extract using the ion-gel method, capable of protecting and preserving the bioactive compounds. The research results showed that the extraction process achieved the highest efficiency when using 80% ethanol, with a material:solvent ratio of 1:80, and sonication at 50 °C for 45 min. Under these conditions, the extracts obtained had total polyphenol (TPC) and total flavonoid (TFC) content of 379.537 ± 1.223 mg GAE/g DW and 154.258 ± 0.467 mg QE/g DW, respectively, demonstrating that the ultrasonic method contributed to increasing the ability to break down plant tissue and release active ingredients effectively. In the microencapsulation process, the gel formation conditions using 2% alginate, with an ultrasonic vibration amplitude of 50% for 5 min, resulted in a uniform microencapsulation system with a microencapsulation efficiency of 83.84%, stable particle structure, and suitable hardness and swelling. After 1 month of storage, the microencapsulation system maintained good quality, demonstrating the effective protection and stabilization of active ingredients by the alginate material.

The aim of this study was to conduct a multi-parametric assessment of optical degradation and surface chemical changes in composite resins following exposure to polyphenol-rich beverages, by integrating spectrophotometric measurements with SEM-EDS analysis to evaluate potential associations between elemental alterations and esthetic outcomes. 128 disc-shaped (2mm × 8mm) composite resin specimens divided into two main groups according to the composite resin used: Supra nano hybrid composite resin (Estelite Palfique Paste) and Microhybrid composite resin (Estelite Posterior). After four-step polishing with Sof-Lex discs, the specimens were weighed, their colors were recorded using a spectrophotometer according to the CIEDE2000 system. Specimens were then immersed for 14days in black, rooibos, or peppermint teas for 2h/day to simulate clinically relevant daily tea consumption habits. During the remaining time, specimens were stored in distilled water at 37°C in an incubator. The tea solutions were prepared using commercial tea bags. Each tea bag (approximately 2g) was immersed in 200mL of freshly boiled distilled water and allowed to steep for 5min. After removal of the tea bags, the solutions were cooled to a drinkable temperature (60 ± 2°C) and used for the immersion procedures. Total polyphenol content (TPC) of the teas was determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu method. Color change (ΔE00), translucency parameter (TP00), and weight loss were measured at baseline and after post-staining (n = 10). SEM-EDS analysis (n = 3) was performed to assess surface morphology and elemental composition. Normality was assessed using Shapiro-Wilk, and parametric or non-parametric tests were applied accordingly. Both parametric (ANOVA) and non-parametric (Kruskal-Wallis) tests were used according to data distribution. Correlations were performed using Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. The level of statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. TPC differed significantly among teas (p < 0.05). Black tea caused the greatest ΔE00and ΔP00 change in both composite resins (p < 0.05). SEM-EDS analysis revealed tea-associated changes in surface elemental signals, including increased carbon and reduced silicon levels. ΔE00was positively correlated with total polyphenol content (ρ = 0.614) and surface carbon percentage (ρ = 0.660), and negatively correlated with silicon percentage (ρ = - 0.503) (all p < 0.001). ΔP00 was positively correlated with silicon and negatively correlated with carbon percentage (p < 0.001). Composite resins showed different susceptibility to extrinsic staining depending on tea type, with black tea causing the greatest changes in color and translucency properties. Optical degradation was accompanied by alterations in surface elemental composition, particularly involving carbon and silicon.

In the present study, bioactive packaging materials based on polysaccharides were developed and qualified by the WHO/FAO Expert Committee as safe food additives. Pau d'Arco extract was incorporated due to its rich bioactive composition and strong antioxidant properties. The addition of the extract conferred significant antioxidant activity to the polymer films. The colour of the films varied significantly (p < 0.05) depending on the extract concentration, which itself exhibited a dark colour. The highest barrier performance in terms of water vapour transmission rate (WVTR) and oxygen transmission rate (OTR) was observed for the sample with the highest extract content (2.5F). Changes in WVTR were associated with the presence of polyphenols and flavonoids in the extract. Furthermore, the films displayed concentration-dependent antibacterial effects against E. coli, with higher extract levels leading to longer inhibition times, indicating enhanced antimicrobial activity. Spearman's correlation confirmed that antioxidant activity parameters and the total polyphenol and flavonoid content were fully correlated with OTR and WVTR (R = 1), as well as with other measured properties, demonstrating the multifunctional potential of these bioactive films.

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of Magnolia denudata extract (MDE) on the quality and storage stability of chicken breast sausages and to assess its potential as a natural alternative to synthetic antioxidants. MDE exhibited an antioxidant capacity of 44.48%, total polyphenol content of 132.91 mg GAE/g, and total flavonoid content of 42.44 mg NE/g. Chicken breast sausages were prepared with MDE at concentrations of 0.1% (T1), 0.15% (T2), and 0.2% (T3), and their quality characteristics were compared with a control group without any added extract. The analyzed parameters included proximate composition, color, cooking yield, water-holding capacity, sensory evaluation, and changes during storage, including pH, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS), and volatile basic nitrogen (VBN). The results showed that increasing concentrations of MDE increased moisture content while reducing protein content in the sausages (p < 0.05). Cooking yield and water-holding capacity were significantly higher in the extract-treated groups compared to the control (p < 0.05). During storage, sausages with MDE exhibited less variation in pH compared to the control, with the 0.2% treatment group showing the most stable pH values. TBARS was significantly inhibited at all extract concentrations, with the 0.2% group showing the slowest increase (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the 0.2% extract group significantly reduced VBN content (p < 0.05), indicating better protein preservation and spoilage prevention. These findings suggest that the addition of 0.2% Magnolia denudata extract effectively enhances cooking properties and storage stability in chicken breast sausages, highlighting its potential as a safe and natural antioxidant alternative for improving processed meat quality.

Grape pomace (GP), a winemaking by-product rich in polyphenols and anthocyanins, was used as a functional ingredient to enhance the nutritional and functional properties of gluten-free pasta. Grape pomace flour (GPF), from red grape varieties, was characterized for its moisture content (2.13 ± 0.41 g/100 g), total polyphenols (1773.52 ± 207.24 mg GAE/100 g), anthocyanins (72.38 ± 16.18 mg/100 g), pH (3.59 ± 0.02), titratable acidity (12.32 ± 0.45 g /100 g), fibre (64.1 ± 5.02 g/100 g), water binding capacity (420.38 ± 15.75 g/100 g), and oil binding capacity (340.63 ± 57.97 g/100 g). Gluten-free fettuccine was formulated with 0%, 5%, and 10% GPF, and the cooking, chemical, and physical properties of both fresh and dried pasta were evaluated. The incorporation of GPF significantly affected the pasta’s functional properties and nutritional profile. The optimal cooking time increased from approximatively 5 minutes for control samples (0% GPF) to about 7 minutes for pasta containing 10% GPF. Enriching gluten free pasta with GPF significantly increased the content of bioactive compounds. Total polyphenol content increased from three to sixfold compared to the control sample, depending on the level of GPF added and the drying process. Furthermore, anthocyanin content increased up to 88.05 ± 4.14 mg/kg in fresh gluten free pasta samples, however, the drying process induced degradation of these pigments up to 29%. The results showed that fortifying gluten-free pasta with grape pomace flour improves its nutritional and functional properties and promotes circular gastronomy practices through the valorisation of agri-food by-products and their sustainable reintroduction into the food system. • Grape pomace flour markedly increases polyphenols, anthocyanins and fibre in gluten-free pasta • GPF addition modifies cooking properties, extending optimal cooking time • Use of winemaking by-products supports circular and sustainable gastronomy

This study examined the chemical composition and functional properties of fermented whey beverages produced from organic cow and goat whey, including both acid and sweet variants, enriched with organic sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) or rosehip (Rosa canina) juices. In contrast to earlier research primarily addressing physicochemical and technological aspects, the present work offers a comprehensive evaluation of fatty acid composition, mineral and trace element content, antioxidant activity, and total polyphenol levels in these beverage formulations. Both the type of whey and the fruit additive significantly influenced the compositional profile and antioxidant capacity of the beverages. Samples fortified with rosehip demonstrated the highest antioxidant potential, as evidenced by enhanced DPPH radical scavenging activity, elevated FRAP values, and increased total polyphenol content. In comparison, beverages enriched with sea buckthorn juice exhibited higher concentrations of selected minerals, particularly Fe and Ni, while maintaining toxic element levels within permissible limits. The fatty acid profile was predominantly composed of saturated fatty acids, notably C16:0, along with short-chain fatty acids typical of whey. Beverages derived from goat whey contained higher levels of SFA and MUFA than those produced from cow whey, whereas the addition of rosehip contributed to increased proportions of PUFA and omega-3 fatty acids. Collectively, these findings indicate that organic fermented whey beverages enriched with rosehip or sea buckthorn juice may serve as promising functional products with enhanced antioxidant properties and favorable mineral and fatty acid profiles.

Incorporating plant-derived bioactive ingredients into dairy products is a promising strategy for the development of functional foods with health-promoting properties. This study evaluated the effects of Nigella sativa (black cumin) flour (0.5% and 1%, w/w) on the physicochemical composition, total polyphenol content (TPC), antioxidant activity (DPPH and ABTS), microbiological stability and sensory properties of Romanian Telemea cheese. Fortification with Nigella sativa flour significantly increased total polyphenol content to 0.91 and 1.82 mg GAE/100 g for the 0.5% and 1% additions, respectively, while antioxidant capacity reached 1.53 and 3.05 mg TE/100 g (DPPH) and 40.00 and 80.00 mg TE/100 g (ABTS) (p &lt; 0.05). Microbiological analyses revealed complete inhibition of Enterobacteriaceae, yeasts and molds in fortified cheeses. Sensory evaluation identified 0.5% as the optimal fortification level, balancing improved bioactivity and consumer acceptability. The results demonstrate that moderate fortification (0.5%) effectively improves functional value while maintaining technological and sensory characteristics, supporting the development of clean-label functional brine cheeses

Musa balbisiana seeds contain a variety of important bioactive compounds. This study evaluated the efficacy of ultrasound‐assisted extraction (UAE) and microwave‐assisted extraction (MAE) to obtain polyphenol‐ and saponin‐rich extracts from M. balbisiana seeds. The single‐factor influence factors, as well as the optimal conditions for the extraction, were investigated. The study also included the evaluation of the composition and content of bioactive compounds, as well as the fractionation and identification of the major compound in the purified fraction. The experimental results showed that the MAE method was superior in obtaining extracts rich in polyphenols and saponins compared to the UAE method. Under the optimal MAE conditions, the total polyphenol content (TPC) and total saponin content (TSC) in the M. balbisiana seed extract reached a maximum of 269.76 mgGAE/gDM and 171.36 mg/gDM, respectively, when extracted at 80% methanol, 4 s/min microwave irradiation cycle, and 40‐min microwave time. The seed extract showed characteristic peaks for polyphenols and saponins, as confirmed by Raman and FT‐IR spectra. After fractionating the seed extract, it was determined that quercetin‐3‐o‐rutinose was the major compound in the purified fraction.

Fermentation of non-dairy substrates by lactic acid bacteria can enhance the functional properties of their products. post-fermentation untargeted metabolomic profiling via ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) and aroma analysis via gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS) assessed biochemical and volatile changes, while an 8-week, 1 g kg-1 daily dose was tested in high-fat diet-induced obese rats for body weight, fat mass, lipid, enzyme, and microbiota outcomes. Fermentation increased total polyphenol and flavonoid contents by 45% and 60%, respectively, and enriched metabolic pathways related to amino acid metabolism, purine degradation, and pantothenate-CoA biosynthesis. GC-IMS analysis revealed a 70% reduction in sulfur- and lipid-derived off-flavors and a 50% increase in fruity esters (e.g., ethyl acetate, hexyl acetate) and creamy ketones. Network analysis identified jasmonic acid, betaine, and trans-aconitic acid as key metabolic hubs. In vivo, treated rats exhibited an 18% reduction in body weight gain, 25% less visceral fat, and a 30% decrease in hepatic triglycerides (p < 0.01), accompanied by elevated pancreatic lipase and lipoprotein lipase activities and a 40% enrichment of butyrate-producing gut taxa. These findings demonstrate that fermentation by L. rhamnosus NTTU 007 significantly remodels the metabolome and aroma profile of pigeon pea, conferring robust antioxidant and anti-obesity functionalities and supporting its potential as a novel non-dairy synbiotic ingredient in health-promoting foods.

ABSTRACTIn this study, the interaction models between an extract of red grape pomace obtained by extraction with eutectic solvents and three enzymes, responsible for pro‐inflammatory (lipoxygenase) and metabolic syndrome responses (α‐amylase and α‐glucosidase), were systematically investigated through experiments and computational simulations. The chromatographic analysis allowed the identification of thirty‐two polyphenolic compounds in the extract, predominantly phenolic acids (73%), with a total polyphenol content of 575.58 mg/kg. The main identified compounds were vanillic acid, azelaic acid, chlorogenic acid, suberic acid, abietic acid, phlorizin, polydatin, and t‐resveratrol. SwissADME and ProTox‐3.0 bioinformatic tools were employed to assess the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, highlighting that 23.23% of the identified compounds may exert good oral bioavailability in humans and neuroprotective or cognitive‐enhancing effects within the central nervous system. A high inhibition rate of 99% for amylase and glucosidase and 82% for lipoxygenase was suggested. The thermodynamic analysis suggested that hydrogen bonding, van der Waals, and hydrophobic forces primarily drove the interactions. The molecular docking results revealed details on the potential mechanisms involved in the inhibition of the metabolic syndrome‐associated enzymes exerted by the phenolic compounds from red grape extract. Different phenolic compounds were identified to attach to the active site of the enzymes, interfering with their activity. The anti‐diabetic activity might be assigned to vanillic acid and suberic acid, which bind to α‐amylase and α‐glucosidase respectively, whereas suberic acid and resveratrol appeared to be responsible for the direct inhibitory mechanism of lipoxygenase.

Medicinal plants represent a promising source of bioactive compounds with potential antidiabetic activity, while the efficacy of plant extracts depends on both plant matrix and extraction conditions. This study aimed to systematically compare selected medicinal plants and extraction solvents to evaluate their impact on extracts’ in vitro α-amylase inhibitory activity, total polyphenol content (TPC), antioxidant capacity, and antimicrobial properties. Extracts of sage (Salvia officinalis), blueberry leaf (Vaccinium myrtillus), nettle (Urtica dioica), wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), and green and roasted coffee (Coffea arabica) were prepared using different solvent systems (50% (v/v) ethanol, propylene glycol, glycerol, and water), as well as a traditional aqueous infusion protocol. Extraction solvent strongly affected bioactivity: ethanol extracts showed the highest α-amylase inhibition, particularly in sage extract (79.60%) and blueberry leaf (57.71%). No significant correlation with TPC was observed (r = 0.229, p = 0.108), but aqueous ethanol yielded the highest TPC, with blueberry leaf being richest (64.16 ± 0.82 mg GAE/g), followed by roasted coffee (49.36 ± 0.83 mg GAE/g). Ethanol extracts demonstrated antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Overall, sage and blueberry leaves showed the most promising multifunctional activity, highlighting their potential for further investigation as functional food ingredients.

An integrated green strategy based on deep eutectic solvents and ultrasound for efficient polyphenol profiling and antioxidant evaluation of dendrobium officinale

In this study, preparation-dependent differences in antioxidant and hepatoprotective bioactivity of Pistacia khinjuk Stocks were investigated. Phenolic profiling and antioxidant capacity analyses were integrated with in vivo biochemical and oxidative stress assessments in a rat model of ethanol-induced oxidative stress. LC-MS analysis revealed that the extract was enriched in gallic acid, rutin hydrate, and homovanillic acid, whereas the coffee form contained higher levels of ellagic acid, luteolin, and isoquercitrin. The extract form most effectively enhanced GPx (glutathione peroxidase) and GST (glutathione S-transferase) activities and reduced ALT (alanine aminotransferase) and LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) levels, whereas the coffee preparation increased catalase activity and reduced AST (Aspartate aminotransferase) and lipid peroxidation. Despite its lower total polyphenol content, the coffee form exhibited notable antioxidant effects, suggesting that processing-induced transformations may influence functional bioactivity. Overall, compositional differences translated into preparation-dependent biological responses, indicating that the antioxidant efficacy of P. khinjuk varies with preparation method.

The red andong (Cordyline fruticosa (L) A. Chev.) plant, known for its potent anti-diarrheal properties and abundant anthocyanin pigments, has attracted significant research interest because of its strong antioxidant activity. This study aims to explore the biotechnological enhancement of red andong leaves through fermentation with Bacillus subtilis. This investigation examines incubation periods of 24, 48, and 72 hours to analyze the subsequent effects on total polyphenol content and antioxidant efficacy. Leaf extracts were prepared by maceration in 70% ethanol, and total polyphenol concentrations were quantified using the Folin-Ciocalteu assay, expressed as mg gallic acid equivalents per gram (mg GAE/g). Antioxidant capacity was assessed via IC50 values using DPPH radical scavenging and the Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) assay. In silico studies were conducted to predict the potential molecular mechanisms of these effects. Statistically significant increases in polyphenolic content were observed post-fermentation; Non-Fermented Extracts (NFE) contained 29.11 ± 0.90 mg GAE/g, while extracts fermented for 24 (EF24 - 63.03 ± 0.90 mg GAE/g), 48 (EF48 - 73.54 ± 0.98 mg GAE/g), and 72 hours (EF72 - 38.56 ± 0.82 mg GAE/g) showed notable increases. Concomitantly, antioxidant activities demonstrated marked improvements; the NFE exhibited an IC50 value of 39.297 μg/mL, vs. 13.159 μg/mL for EF24, 10.488 μg/mL for EF48, and 37.872 μg/mL for EF72. An in silico study revealed that fermentation-derived compounds (phytol and α-tocopherol) may contribute to antioxidant pathways by modulating CDK6, AR, and PKM. The FRAP results confirmed an increase in reducing power throughout the fermentation period, underscoring EF48's superior profile. Thus, the study confirms that fermentation substantially enhances the bioactive properties of red Andong leaves, meriting additional mechanistic research and scalability assessments for applications in functional foods and therapeutics.