Tool Material Research Articles

Sustainable tool technology: Wood-based forming tools for deep drawing of sheet metal

In order to improve adaptability to evolving manufacturing processes in an era marked by mass customization and individualization, while also meeting geopolitical climate objectives, it is necessary to employ more sustainable methods in sheet metal forming to enhance flexibility. Metal based rigid tooling systems require a lot of material and energy resources, when aiming for high flexibility and scalability with respect to small batch size production. To reduce the overall resource consumption and to meet climate restrictions, non-metallic tooling approaches can counteract these issues when aiming for individualization in sheet metal forming. Compared to conventional metal-based tooling approaches, wood-based forming tools may enable a potential resource reduction (e.g., carbon footprint) and offer an alternative tooling approach for sheet metal forming. Although the mechanical performance of wood is lower compared to conventional tooling steel, certain wood-based forming tools can potentially be implemented for sheet metal forming. In this work a feasibility study of wood-based tooling materials is executed to investigate the mechanical performance on drawn sheet metal parts in a deep drawing operation. Different composite structures are investigated for wooden forming tools of black locust (robinia pseudoacacia).

Experimental investigation of cutting force of powder metallurgy valve guide rod hole

Aiming at the problem of fast wear of machining tools in the special powder metallurgy valve guide rod hole and gasket seat of a certain engine cylinder head, in order to solve the technical problems in the cutting force (CF) of this kind of powder metallurgy materials, different tools are used and the analysis is carried out under different cutting test conditions. The cutting force law and surface roughness change law of similar powder metallurgy materials are determined to determine the appropriate tool materials and processing parameters. The experimental results show that under the same processing conditions, ceramic tools will suffer less than cemented carbide tools and cutting force can obtain a smaller surface roughness. In addition, the mass production process of valve seat, the blade material is ceramic knife.

STRESS, EQUIVALENT STRAIN AND DEFORMATION FOR MACHINING OPERATION UTILIZING EXPLICIT DYNAMIC ANALYSIS FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS

Subtractive and additive manufacturing methods constitute the two main categories of modern manufacturing technology used in the manufacturing sector. The subtractive method is used for material removal and is performed in (Brass, Aluminum and Teflon), the machining process is achieved using CNC (Computer Numerical Method) turn machine. The main objective of the paper is to perform FEA (Finite Element Analysis) over the three material (Brass, Aluminum and Teflon). The CNC machine is used to perform a machining over the three-material stated above, but within the CNC machine there is no provision for achieving the various values of (stress, strain and deformation) during the machining operation. During the machining process, it’s very difficult to get and accurate value of stress for the tool and raw (test) material, so Ansys FEA analysis method is adopted to predict the parameter like stress, strain and total deformation. The analysis part is achieved by the developing the CAD model using Solid work and FEA analysis using Ansys and thereby the output will be helpful to understand the various stress parameters. The results highlight that Teflon has a higher value for total deformation followed by aluminum and brass. The equivalent strain for the Teflon is higher and followed by brass and aluminum. The stress is acting in axial and compressive direction, so brass have a higher value followed by aluminum and Teflon. This method and analysis procedure can be adopted for understanding the deformation, stress and stain acting on any material, which will be highly useful for material of higher with a higher hardness value.

Failure Analysis of Large-Size Drilling Tools in the Oil and Gas Industry

Abstract The safety problem of large-size drilling tools in large-size boreholes has become increasingly prominent with the exploration and development of deep and ultradeep wells. This study analyzes the causes of large-size drilling tool failures from the engineering point of view via statistical analysis, experimental material test, and vibration and bending analyses. Results show that the violent downhole vibration changes the drilling tool's mechanical properties. These changes result in an uneven distribution of hardness and reduced impact work, finally leading to the initiation of fatigue cracks at stress concentration points. Drilling tool bending is closely related to drilling parameters and bottom hole assembly (BHA) configuration. Unreasonable BHA configuration and drilling parameters increase BHA bending and accelerate fatigue failure. Once a crack is generated, the corrosive ions in water-based drilling fluids invade the microcrack, causing the corrosion of the drilling tool material. As a result, the strength is reduced, and the fracture is aggravated. Therefore, measures for preventing the failure of large-size drilling tools are proposed. We hope that the results of this work can provide useful guidance for drilling engineers.

Comparison of the relationship between hardness and wear resistance of polycrystalline diamond and cubic boron nitride

AbstractHardness is an important indicator of the wear resistance of tool materials. The study of the effect of hardness on the wear resistance of tool materials has significant practical applications. In this experimental work, a series of polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PcBN) and diamond (PCD) compacts with different hardness are sintered under high temperature and pressure, and these samples were fashioned into turning tools, used for edge wear testing in the granite turning process. Based on the measurements above, the relationship between hardness and wear resistance in two materials with identical grain sizes (1–2 µm) was examined, and the results reveal a significant positive correlation between the hardness and wear resistance of the two materials. Remarkably, the relationship between hardness and wear resistance in two materials complies with the same type of fitting function. But incredibly, the wear resistance of the two materials exhibits inconsistency as the hardness increases. Specifically, below 40 GPa Vickers hardness, both materials exhibit comparable wear resistance. However, above 40 GPa, the difference in wear resistance between the two materials becomes more pronounced with increasing hardness. At the Vickers hardness of 70 GPa, the abrasion ratio of the PCD is approximately 3.5 times that of the PcBN, and it is anticipated that the disparity between them will continue to expand within the broader range of hardness. Further analysis reveals that the intrinsic hardness of the crystal grains significantly impacts the wear resistance of polycrystalline materials.

Evaluating the Influence of Tool Material on the Performance of Refill Friction Stir Spot Welds in AA2029

Joining high strength 2xxx series aluminum is known to be complex and difficult; these alloys are traditionally considered non-weldable for fusion welding. This paper describes details on welding AA2029-T8 for skin-stiffened structures using refill friction stir spot welding (RFSSW). RFSSW is a solid-state process invented in the early 2000s that produces spot welds that are strong, lightweight, flush, and hermetic. Cycle times between 1 and 3 s are discussed, and process forces within a range of 8 to 14 kN are demonstrated. Furthermore, lap-shear quasi-static tensile strengths are shown to be between 10 kN and 12 kN in 9 mm diameter spots. A comparison of the performance of RFSSW welds made with various tool materials—which include H13 tool steel, tungsten carbide, and MP159—is detailed. Comparisons of parameters, weld consolidation, and heat-affected zones are presented with discussion related to heat generation specific to each tool material.

A Comprehensive Review on Cutting Tool Material in Hard Turning Performance

The work presents a comprehensive review on the influences of cutting tool material on the efficiency of hard turning process. Major trends in tool use and coating innovations are specified. The results of the hard turning process are evaluated through a number of main parameters such as surface roughness, cutting force, cutting heat, and wear mechanism. These results show that high cutting forces and cutting temperatures are still the huge challenges in choosing cutting tool materials in hard turning. This also limits the applicability of these materials and increases tooling costs due to the need to move towards using cutting tools with higher grades and hardness. The analysis results also point out the necessity of using appropriate cooling lubrication technology to support the hard turning process, helping to improve tool usage efficiency and the effectiveness of the hard turning process.

Особенности моделирования шероховатости поверхности при фрезеровании нержавеющих сталей c применением различных сред

Modeling characteristics for surface finish when milling stainless steels using various media (grade steel 12X18H10T) using IOL-20A (industrial oil lubricant), CM-99 (cooling mixture), rapeseed and castor oils and on dry treatment, using the algorithms of the group method of data handling are viewed. The use of various lubricating and cooling technological mixtures (LCTM) is thought of as the theory of metal cutting factor reducing surface undulation. However, the degree of influence of various LCTM, including vegetable oils, when milling steel 12X18H10T has not been determined. The study case of various effects interaction on the milling process has shown that these studies were conducted on the basis of single-phase experiments that do not allow specifying mutual influence of the studied factors on the value of the parameters of the cutting process for various types of treatment. The research methodology provides for modeling surface finish under milling of 12X18H10T steel according to experimental data using various process liquids in the accepted range of cutting modes. At the same time, modern modeling methods allow us to determine these mutual effects. To obtain models, it is urgent, first of all, to be aware of break-in process criterion and dulling tool criterion as well. As a result of processing experimental data for each of processing media, surface finish models in the form of dependencies Ra = f (v, sz, t) were constructed, adequately describing the milling process with various media. It is indicated that the influence of regime parameters on the formation of micro-dimensions take the form of their close interrelation. Their interplay has various effects, depending on the LCTM used for the specified work stock and tool material.

Archaeological evidence of resource utilisation of walrus, Odobenus rosmarus, over the past two millennia: A systematic review protocol.

The walrus, Odobenus rosmarus, is an iconic pinniped and predominant molluscivore that is well adapted to Arctic and subarctic environments. Its circumpolar distribution, large body size and ivory tusks facilitated its vital role as food, raw material (for tools and art), income, and cultural influence on many Arctic Indigenous communities for millennia. Intensification of hunting (often due to the arrival of Europeans, especially between the 16 th and 19 th centuries) to obtain ivory, hide, blubber and meat, resulted in diminished, sometimes extirpated, walrus populations. Zooarchaeological, artefactual and documentary evidence of walrus material has been collated at local and regional scales and is frequently focused on a specific culture or period of time. Systematic collation of this evidence across the Northern Hemisphere will provide insight into the chronology and circumpolar distribution of walrus hunting and provide a tool to document societal change in walrus resource use. Here, we lay out a systematic review protocol to collate records of archaeological walrus artefacts, tusks and bones that have been documented primarily within published literature to archive when and where (as feasible) walrus extractions occurred between 1 CE and 2000 CE. These data will be openly available for the scientific community. The resulting dataset will be the first to provide spatiotemporal information (including the recognition of knowledge gaps) regarding past walrus populations and extirpations on a circumpolar scale. Our protocol is published to ensure reproducibility and comparability in the future, and to encourage the adoption of systematic review methodology (including pre-published protocols) in archaeology.

A novel hybrid multi-criteria decision methodology for assessing tool materials in friction stir welding process

A novel hybrid multi-criteria decision methodology for assessing tool materials in friction stir welding process

Towards sustainable injection moulding using 3D printed conformal cooling channels: a comparative simulation study

In recent years, studies have proven that conformal cooling channels (CCC) in an additively manufactured mould result in a more efficient and effective injection moulding process. This can be achieved since CCCs are designed to follow the contour of the part being moulded so that the surface of the part is equidistant from the channel at all points. However, no studies were found which explored the combined effect of mould material thermal conductivity and varying cooling channel designs on the cooling performance of the mould from a sustainability point of view. Within this context, a study was carried out to explore the effect of the tool material’s thermal conductivity on the performance of various CCC designs in comparison with conventional, straight drilled cooling channels. The performance of the cooling channels was analysed from a sustainability point of view by comparing the channel performances in terms of energy consumption, financial implications, and the resulting quality of the part. The results of this study showed that the higher conductivity alloys were especially effective at reducing the cycle time and improving the energy performance of the process in the conventional cooling channel designs. These materials were also capable of reducing the overall cost of the process which was calculated in terms of material costs and electricity consumption. For the CCC designs, however, the high conductivity alloys were less effective in all aspects of this analysis, namely cooling time, energy efficiency, and overall costs. However, it is worth noting that based on the melt flow simulations, the alternative materials had little to no effect on the resulting quality of the part.

Milling Tool Wear Monitoring via the Multichannel Cutting Force Coefficients

Tool wear monitoring (TWM) is of great importance for improving the machining quality and the efficiency of the milling process. Extracting a discriminative tool wear feature is the key to TWM. Cutting force coefficients, which reflect the tool–chip and tool–material contact form, are good indicators of tool wear condition. However, in the existing studies, only the tangential and radial cutting force coefficients are adopted to monitor tool wear. The axial coefficients extracted from the axial cutting force are neglected. Preliminary experiments have shown that, although the axial cutting force has a small amplitude, the axial cutting force coefficients are very discriminative regarding the tool wear condition. Fusing the axial coefficients and the traditional tangential and radial coefficients can improve the monitoring accuracy. Based on such a consideration, this study proposes a milling tool wear monitoring method in which the multichannel cutting force coefficients, viz., the tangential, radial, and axial cutting force coefficients, are fused to indicate the tool wear. A long short-term memory (LSTM) network is adopted to sequentially estimate the progressive tool wear value from the multichannel cutting force coefficients. The effectiveness of the proposed monitoring method is examined using the PHM 2010 data. The results show that the proposed method outperforms the traditional method. With the fusion of the multichannel coefficients, the monitoring accuracy improves by 2.74–6.35%.

On the identification of the performance characteristics laws in EDM of biomedical Ti-6Al-4 V alloy with different tool electrode materials

The generation of performance characteristics laws may improve the reliability of EDM models, thus limiting experimentation and the resulting ecological effects and waste. In the present research, a finite element (FE) computational approach combined with experiment and regression analysis is employed to identify the laws relating power density and removal efficiency to the process settings in EDM of Ti-6Al-4 V alloy with various tool electrode materials. The experimental results for material removal rate (MRR), tool wear rate (TWR) and white layer thickness (WTL) are used as input data for the identification procedure. It was found that the performance characteristics are strongly affected by the machining parameters and tool-anode material. The power fraction going to the cathode varies between 7 and 30 % depending on the machining conditions and tool electrode materials studied. When employing a graphite electrode as opposed to copper or aluminum electrodes, the removal efficiency is maximized, at 51 %. Thus, the highest and lowest values of performance characteristics are obtained under the same processing conditions, irrespective of the tool material. The performance characteristics laws of the cathode are generated through a regression analysis. The established laws were validated by comparing the erosion ratio from the numerical simulation with the experiment. Qualitatively, the results of such a confrontation are deemed satisfactory. The established laws may be helpful in modeling the EDM process to predict the EDMed Ti-6Al-4 V surface integrity in the biomedical and aerospace sectors.

Machining and wear rates in EDM of D2 steel: A comparative study of electrode designs and materials

Electrical discharge machining (EDM), especially the die-sinking variant, is a well-known slow machining process among non-conventional manufacturing processes. Different approaches are being researched to improve EDM performance characteristics especially increasing its material removal rate (MRR) and reducing the tool wear rate (TWR). This study aims to improve the EDM process performance through modifications in tool design and employing different tool materials. The performance of conventional EDM tool is compared with different tool designs while machining D2 steel. Moreover, tool designs are employed on different tool materials including copper (Cu), copper-tungsten alloy (CuW), and graphite (Gr) to investigate the combined effect of tool designs and materials on important performance indicators of EDM die-sinking. The machining time (MT), material removal rate (MRR), lateral tool wear (TWR_L), and diametric tool wear (TWR_D) are selected as the response measures. The modified tool designs reduce the machining time by 45%. Likewise, Cu and CuW remarkably improve the material removal rate by 80%. Similarly, the lateral and diametric tool wear of modified designs are less than the wear corresponding to conventional design. Microscopic analysis revealed two wear zones which are named as aggressive sparking zone and mild sparking zone. All materials (Cu, CuW, and Gr) with the modified tool designs show significantly less sparking zone compared with the conventional design. Moreover, the most appropriate combination of tool design and material is proposed to achieve better EDM performance.

Machinability of different cutting tool materials for electric discharge machining: A review and future prospects

Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) is essential for shaping and cutting tool steel. EDM’s precision in machining difficult materials and tool steel characteristics are well known. EDM efficiency requires reliable performance measurement parameters. The physical shape and mobility of the electrode tool are critical in EDM research. Layer machining is an advanced method that removes material in a sequential manner to produce intricate 3D shapes in tool steel and several other materials. The improvement in layer machining methods with precise toolpath algorithms, adaptive layer thickness management, and real-time monitoring systems is required to maximize precision and efficiency. Response surface methodology, the artificial neural network, and other techniques are necessary to optimize EDM operations and maximize performance. Many researchers experimented with electrode shapes and movement patterns to enhance the removal of material and the quality of surfaces. Investigation of complex electrode structures and innovative tool path strategies has been performed in previous studies. It was very difficult to consider various factors during the EDM operation; hence, the present review summarizes the positive outcomes of previous research. The review emphasizes optimizing pulse duration and discharge current to improve EDM efficiency. The present comprehensive review discusses research on EDM in three main areas: electrode tool geometry and motion, tool steel layer processing, and factors for measuring EDM performance. The objective of the present review is to focus on measuring material removal rates, surface roughness, tool wear, and energy usage. The present review concludes that EDM is crucial to machining tool steel and cutting tool materials. Integrating and hybrid machining technologies can improve performance, and improved optimization techniques are crucial. It also recognizes knowledge gaps and explores new frontiers in this dynamic field.

Improvement of Machinability of Hardened Steel in Turning Operation Using Cryogenically Treated Cutting Tool

Hardened steels need special cutting tools like PCBN and ceramic to be machined. But these cutting tools aren’t cost-effective and require machine tool structures that are stiff and don’t let vibrations through. The current trend is to find other, less expensive ways to make these materials easier to work with. Cryo-treating cutting tools is an effective way to improve the way the tool materials work when they are cut. Cryogenically treated tungsten carbide inserts in dry turning operations were looked at in this study. For hard turning of hardened mild steel (48 HRC), the performance of cryogenically treated Tungsten Carbide (WC) inserts was compared with that of untreated inserts in terms of chip-tool interface temperature and surface roughness under dry cutting conditions. The cutting tool (Untreated and Treated), and cutting speed (375, 512, 706 rpm) were selected as experiment parameters at a constant feed rate of 0.0841mm/rev and depth of cut 1mm. The chip-tool interface temperature analysis results revealed that temperature increases with the increasing cutting velocities. A better surface finish can be found at a higher cutting speed. The lower value of Ra was found at 1.75 μm (without cryogenic treatment) and 1.05 μm (with cryogenic treatment) for cutting speed at 706 rpm.

REFINEMENT OF THE PARAMETRIC MODEL OF ROUGHNESS FORMATION BY CONDUCTING AN EXPERIMENT

The article deals with the influence of lubricating and cooling technological medium and cutting temperature regime on the efficiency of the cutting process. The article presents the results of experimental studies, which showed that the use of optimal lubricant and cutting temperature control allows to increase the efficiency of the cutting process in the following directions:– Increase of tool durability. The application of coolant allows to reduce the temperature in the cutting zone, which leads to a decrease in tool wear.– Reduction of roughness of the machined surface. The use of coolants allows to reduce the temperature in the cutting zone, which leads to a decrease in the deformation of the machined material and, as a consequence, to an improvement in the quality of the machined surface.– Reduction of cutting forces. The application of coolants allows to reduce the temperature in the cutting zone, which leads to a decrease in friction between the tool and the processed material and, as a consequence, to a decrease in cutting forces.The obtained results indicate that the use of optimal coolant and cutting temperature control are effective ways to improve the efficiency of the cutting process.Recommendations on the use of coolants (lubricating and cooling liquids) and types of coolants to improve the accuracy of the surface layer of machine parts; Recommendations on the creation of new types of environmentally friendly coolants are given.A multifaceted method of selecting new compositions of coolants is proposed. The method is based on the fact that the chemical composition of the part and tool material, machining methods, cutting modes, requirements to accuracy and quality of the surface layer of the part are taken into account when selecting coolants.

Effect of pulse time (Ton), pause time (Toff), peak current (Ip) on MRR and surface roughness of Cu–Al–Mn ternary shape memory alloy using wire EDM

Shape memory and super elasticity are two outstanding properties of Cu–Al–Mn SMAs together with additional copper-based shape memory alloys that make them superior to NiTi alloys. It's quite hard to machine Cu–Al–Mn SMA. The machinability properties of Cu–Al–Mn SMAs during Wire Electrical Discharge Machining (WEDM) were experimentally investigated using molybdenum wire as the electrode material. Material Removal Rate (MRR) and Surface Roughness (SR) are two machining qualities that are studied in relation to the combinational values of pulse time (Ton), pause time (Toff), and peak current (Ip), which are selected as the changeable input process factors. From the experimental investigation, it was found that both MRR and Ra values were increased with an increase in pulse on time(Ton), pulse off time(Toff), and peak current (IP)values. Because the wire electrode contains maximum current under these conditions, it is easy to remove more material at the tool and work material interface, resulting in moderate surface finish. Surface quality was higher on samples machined at low energy input than it was on samples machined at high energy input. This SEM micrograph clearly shows that a lower pulse on time produces a superior surface quality.SEM images and the analysis of the machined surface morphology on the surface of the CAM7 alloy clearly showed that the machined surface of the alloy had a lower surface roughness value at a lower Ip-2A and was associated with a higher surface roughness value at a higher Ip-6A, as well as a lot of uncleared debris and blow holes.

Effect of Tool Material and Pin Configuration on Mechanical Properties of Magnesium ME20 Alloy Joint by Friction Stir Welding

Effect of Tool Material and Pin Configuration on Mechanical Properties of Magnesium ME20 Alloy Joint by Friction Stir Welding

Multi-Objective Optimization and Prediction of Responses Using GRA and ANN in Micro-EDM of Ti6Al4V Using Different Tool Materials

An experimental investigation was conducted to evaluate the machinability of a titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) using copper (Cu), tungsten carbide (WC), and graphite (C) tools. Voltage (V), capacitance (pF), pulse-on time (Ton), and pulse-off time (Toff) were considered as the input machining parameters, whereas the material removal rate (MRR) and tool wear rate (TWR) were considered as the output machining parameters. A Taguchi L[Formula: see text] orthogonal array and gray relational analysis (GRA) were utilized to design and optimize the machining parameters for both responses. Artificial neural network (ANN) analysis was performed to predict the experimental outcomes. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) were used to assess the surface morphology and determine the elemental composition of the machined surface. The results indicated that the optimum machining conditions for the copper tool were 150 V, 1000 pF, 15[Formula: see text]s (Ton), and 15[Formula: see text]s (Toff). However, the optimal machining conditions for the WC were 200 V, 100 pF, 25 [Formula: see text]s (Ton), and 10[Formula: see text]s (Toff), and the optimal conditions for the C were 200 V, 1000 pF, 20[Formula: see text]s (Ton), and 25[Formula: see text]s (Toff), respectively. The highest MRR achieved using the WC tool was 9.4510 mg/s, whereas the TWR of the Cu, WC, and C tools were 1.1039 mg/s, 1.0307 mg/s, and 1.2796 mg/s, respectively. The results showed that machining with the graphite tool had a higher TWR than machining with the Cu and WC tools.