Tons Of CO2 Research Articles

Techno-economic analysis of ocean iron fertilization

This study provides an updated, comprehensive framework for conducting a techno-economic assessment (TEA) of novel carbon dioxide removal approaches. Specifically, the framework is applied to a scenario involving ocean iron fertilization (OIF) in the Southern Ocean. The study investigates whether cost elements, such as administrative and support labor, are accurately included in standard methodologies and proposes solutions for characterizing prospective cost elements and uncertainty in novel CDR TEAs. The first-of-a-kind (FOAK) levelized cost of carbon (LCOC) for OIF deployment is approximately $200 per tonne of CO2. Learning rates are applied, and prospective nth-of-a-kind (NOAK) costs decrease to approximately $180 per tonne of CO2. A local sensitivity analysis indicates that oceanographic parameters, such as the export efficiency of carbon biomass to the deep ocean, have a greater impact on the LCOC compared to engineering parameters like the cost of equipment or materials. Nevertheless, large capital engineering expenditures of approximately $120–160 million also significantly affect the levelized cost. The effect of these high-impact parameters on the LCOC is demonstrated by a cost range from $25 per tonne of CO2 to $53,000 per tonne of CO2 for best- to worst-case scenarios when varying values for monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) processes, losses due to nutrient robbing, equivalent carbon (CO2e) losses from N2O production, CO2 ventilation losses to the atmosphere, net increase in primary production, and export efficiency are considered. Additionally, the effect of learning rates on determining prospective costs is shown through a sensitivity analysis to have a less significant impact on the overall costs of deployment and, in turn, future cost reductions when large parameter input uncertainties are present. Based on these results, it is recommended that oceanographic parameters be better characterized through additional research and development to reduce uncertainty in cost estimation. Methods of OIF deployment, including MRV processes, should also be investigated to minimize capital costs. Additionally, the proposed framework, including the bottom-up business cost analysis, should be applied to other CDR approaches to provide consistent and comprehensive comparisons for companies and decision-makers, underpinning informed funding decisions in the CDR space.

Multi-Criteria Assessment of Carbon Farming: Evaluating Key Performance Indicators

Carbon farming represents a critical approach for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions within the agricultural sector, contributing to climate neutrality goals set by the European Green Deal. This study develops a systematic framework for multi-criteria decision analysis for the assessment of result-based carbon farming mechanisms. A structured set of key performance indicators has been analysed and adopted for Latvian conditions, incorporating CO₂-equivalent reduction metrics, sustainability indicators, and cobenefit evaluations to quantify the environmental and socio-economic impacts of carbon sequestration practices. The identified KPIs encompass agronomic, economic, environmental, and social dimensions, including crop yield, land availability, water use efficiency, energy efficiency, cost per ton of CO₂ sequestered, return on investment, economic value of carbon sequestration, labour productivity, N₂O and CH₄ emissions intensity, land use efficiency, infrastructure availability, adoption rates of methods, and total greenhouse gas emission sequestration potential. The study evaluates a range of carbon farming practices, including zero tillage, minimal tillage, cover crops, intercrops, biogas production, biomethane, soil carbon capture, perennial plants, agroforestry, organic fertilization, crop diversity, crop rotation, biochar application, grazing management, organic permaculture, and bio-tillage. The results contribute to a comprehensive decision-making framework for policymakers, land managers, and agricultural stakeholders.

Implementing Large-Scale CCS in Complex Geologic Reservoirs: Insights from Three Appalachian Basin Case Studies

This paper presents three design case studies for implementing large-scale geologic carbon storage in the Appalachian Basin region of the midwestern United States. While the Appalachian Basin has a challenging setting for carbon storage, the three case studies detailed in this article demonstrate that there are realistic options for implementing carbon storage in the basin. Carbonate rock formations, depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs, and moderate-porosity sandstones can be utilized as carbon-storage reservoirs in the Appalachian Basin. While these are not typical concepts for CO2 storage, the storage zones have advantages such as defined trapping mechanisms, multiple caprocks, and defined boundaries that are not always present in thick, permeable sandstones being targeted for many carbon-storage projects. The geologic setting, geotechnical parameters, and hydrologic setting for the three case studies are provided, along with the results of reservoir simulations of the CO2 injection-deployment strategies. The geological rock formations available for CO2 storage in the Appalachian Basin are more localized reservoirs with defined boundaries and finite storage capacities. Simulation results showed that accessing carbon-storage resources in these fields may require wellfields with 2–10 injection wells. However, these fields would have the capacity to inject 1–3 million metric tons of CO2 per year and up to 90 million metric tons of CO2 in total. The CO2 storage resources would fulfill decarbonization goals for many of the natural-gas power plants, cement plants, hydrogen plants, and refineries in the Appalachian Basin region.

A critical analysis of marine carbon sequestration opportunities in South Korea

South Korea has made significant commitments to pursuing marine carbon sequestration [including ‘blue carbon’] initiatives as part of its broader environmental and climate strategies. Specifically, the South Korean government has set a target to sequester 1,362,000 tonnes of CO₂ in the ocean by 2050 as part of its national strategy. Here, leveraging available data, we outline potential measures to achieve this goal, and provide critical insights into the scale and feasibility of marine carbon sequestration initiatives to inform policymakers and industry stakeholders. We investigated a wide range of potential approaches, ranging from traditional blue carbon approaches involving conservation and restoration of seagrass meadows and tidal marshes; to emerging strategies involving seaweed farming and mudflat restoration; to geoengineering interventions involving ocean alkalinity enhancement. Overall, we find that the South Korean Government target is achievable, largely through [in order of low to high abatement scaleability]: mudflat and saltmarsh conservation/restoration, seaweed conservation/restoration, seagrass conservation/restoration, seaweed farming and ocean alkalinity enhancement. However, we stress that our estimates are rudimentary and carry numerous assumptions/risks, and, moreover, carbon offset standards are still under consideration and development for some of these abatement approaches. In terms of ‘readiness to implement’, South Korea is strongest in seaweed carbon sequestration research and application, with a track record of successful restoration of tens of thousands of hectares of seaweed habitats over several decades. A coordinated national strategy will be needed to realise and establish South Korea’s marine carbon sequestration potential, supported by policy and finance. Fortunately, the marine carbon strategies proposed align with the country’s broader initiatives to enhance biodiversity, protect coastlines, and mitigate the impacts of climate change.

Challenges of aligning district heating structures with climate goals across China's provinces.

Challenges of aligning district heating structures with climate goals across China's provinces.

Assessing production-based and consumption-based greenhouse gas emissions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: insights for mitigation and policy

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and in particular CO2, are critical drivers of climate change, necessitating coordinated global efforts to mitigate their impact. This has led the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) to launch several ambitious initiatives to curb its own emissions. However, there remain significant challenges when it comes to measuring outcomes, due to uncertainties in the existing methods and data. This current study therefore employs Production-Based (PB) and Consumption-Based (CB) emission accounting methods for KSA, emphasizing strategies to minimize the uncertainty inherent in these models. The results reveal that KSA is a net carbon exporter, with PB emissions (523 million tonnes CO2 equivalent (CO2e)) exceeding CB emissions (471 million tonnes CO2e). In addition, the validity of the applied methodology is supported by the literature. This research finds that private households form the largest contributors, along with sectors including electricity, land transport, water, and construction, as well as chemical, rubber, and plastic. The findings also confirm the potential for targeted policies to reduce emissions, i.e., the promotion of energy-efficient appliances, enhanced home insulation, public transportation, and recycling. Furthermore, this study highlights the importance of national investment in the accurate measurement of emissions and detailed energy statistics.

Life Cycle Assessment of Microalgae-Based Products for Carbon Dioxide Utilization in Thailand: Biofertilizer, Fish Feed, and Biodiesel

Background Microalgae-based products offer a sustainable solution for food, fuel, and agricultural inputs, presenting environmental benefits and economic opportunities. A comprehensive assessment is needed to understand their potential in supporting sustainability goals, considering the complex interplay between production methods, energy sources, and environmental impacts. Methods This study evaluated the environmental impacts of three microalgae-derived products – biodiesel, fish feed, and biofertilizer – through a comprehensive life cycle assessment. Nine scenarios were explored comparing three electricity profiles (current Thai mix, 50% renewable/50% current mix hybrid, 100% renewable) across the three products. The assessment evaluated environmental impacts and potential economic benefits of transitioning to these microalgae-based alternatives. Results and discussion All products demonstrated potential for significant environmental benefits under increased renewable energy scenarios. Fish feed consistently exhibited the lowest environmental impacts across all categories examined, showing substantial improvements with increased renewable energy use. With an annual demand of 0.4 million tonnes, fish feed could generate USD 560 million in revenue and reduce CO2 emissions by 1.1 million tonnes. Fulfilling the projected biodiesel demand of 4,015 million liters per year through microalgae production could yield approximately USD 3.5 billion in revenue and reduce CO2 emissions by 30 million tonnes compared to conventional fossil-based diesel. Additionally, algal biofertilizer production could meet a 5 million tonnes annual demand, offering USD 2 billion in revenue while reducing CO2 emissions by 6 million tonnes yearly. Collectively, these products could offset 37 million tonnes of CO2, representing about 14% of Thailand’s total CO2 emissions, contributing significantly to the country’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) target of 20-30% greenhouse gas emissions reduction. Conclusion Transitioning to microalgae-based products could transform the aquaculture, energy, and agricultural sectors, potentially supporting the national climate change mitigation goals, if implemented.

INVENTORY OF CARBON EMISSIONS FOR NET ZERO EMISSION POLICIES IN THE TRANSPORTATION SECTOR IN THE NEW CITY CENTER OF BANDA ACEH, ACEH, INDONESIA

Carbon emissions, a major cause of global warming, predominantly originate from the transportation sector. Countries worldwide, including Indonesia, are committed to achieving Net Zero Emissions (NZE) by targeting a 29% to 41% reduction in emissions by 2030. As Aceh Province's capital, Banda Aceh strives to become a low-carbon city through various mitigation strategies. This study focuses on Mr Teuku Muhammad Hasan Street in the New City Center area of Banda Aceh, a high-traffic zone that significantly contributes to carbon emissions. The research aims to (1) measure vehicular CO2 emissions using traffic counting methods and (2) assess the CO2 absorption capacity of roadside vegetation along this route. Employing the IPCC 2019 Guidelines Tier 1 methodology, the study adopts a quantitative approach with spatial and descriptive analysis supported by field surveys and literature review. Findings indicate a residual emission of 2,676.17 tons of CO2 per year, unabsorbed by existing vegetation. Two key policies are proposed to support NZE goals: (1) increasing vegetation to enhance carbon sequestration and (2) optimizing public transportation, particularly the Trans Koetaradja bus service. Scenario analysis suggests that implementing these policies could reduce residual emissions by up to -114.29 tons CO2 per year, potentially transforming the area into a carbon-negative zone and advancing Banda Aceh's transition toward a low-carbon city.

Evaluating the impact of carbon reduction credits on the techno‐economic feasibility of high‐temperature particle receiver technology for sustainable industrial heat applications

AbstractDecarbonizing high‐temperature industrial processes, such as steel and cement production, remains a significant challenge due to their substantial heat demands. Particle receiver technology offers a novel approach by utilizing solar energy to deliver process heat at temperatures exceeding 1000°C, reducing reliance on fossil fuels. However, its large‐scale adoption hinges on economic feasibility, which has been insufficiently explored in previous studies. This study uniquely assesses the techno‐economic viability of a 100 MW high‐temperature particle receiver system for industrial applications, incorporating the impact of varying carbon reduction credit rates—an aspect not extensively analyzed in existing literature. Results indicate that the system could offset 612,272 tons of CO2 annually, supporting the EU‐2050 net‐zero target. The findings demonstrate that integrating carbon credit mechanisms can significantly enhance economic viability, providing a policy pathway for accelerating the adoption of high‐temperature solar technologies in heavy industries.

Urban lakes as significant sources of greenhouse gas (CO2, CH4, and N2O) emissions: insights from field measurements and statistical analyses.

Urban lakes contribute to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions driven by both natural processes and anthropogenic activities. In this study, we conducted seasonal sampling and analysis of GHG concentrations and water chemistries in Xuanwu Lake, Nanjing, China. Concurrently, we observed pore water chemistry within the lake bottom sediments. Radon isotope activity in lake water was also measured. Then, this study expanded to a broad understanding of urban lake GHG emissions by conducting a meta-analysis of over 100 lakes of similar size but various types (urban vs. non-urban). Xuanwu Lake is a net source of GHG, with mean annual diffusive fluxes of 10.2 ± 9.3mmol∙m-2∙d-1 for CO2, 3.1 ± 0.3mmol∙m-2∙d-1 for CH4, and 12.4 ± 1.0μmol∙m-2∙d-1 for N2O. The lake emitted 614.9 tons of CO2, 68.6 tons of CH4, and 0.84 tons of N2O throughout the year. CO2 levels were positively correlated with dissolved organic and inorganic carbon, while CH4 peaked in winter due to increased anaerobic decomposition. N2O concentrations were strongly linked to nutrient levels. Furthermore, statistical analysis showed that urban lakes demonstrated significantly greater CH4 and N2O emissions compared to non-urban lakes. These findings emphasize the need for further research and targeted mitigation strategies to address GHG emissions from urban lakes, especially in the context of increasing anthropogenic pressures and climate change.

Validation of Designing a Photovoltaic Energy (PVE) System to Enhance Urban Life and Reduce Fossil Fuel Dependence in Tehran and Baghdad

Aim: This study aimed to design and validate a grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) system to assess its potential for reducing CO₂ emissions and enhancing urban sustainability in Tehran and Baghdad. Methods: The study employed a tilt angle of 30°/0° for both sites. A total of 3,654 photovoltaic modules were installed, covering an area of 9,990 m², with 57 inverters integrated into the system. The total system power capacity was 2,138 kW, incorporating components for storage and self-consumption. Results: The results demonstrated a significant reduction in CO₂ emissions over a 15-year system lifetime—amounting to 41,168.7 tons in Iraq and 25,814.1 tons in Iran. In terms of generated emissions, Iraq recorded 1,169.78 tons of CO₂, while the grid lifecycle emissions were 869 tons in Iraq and 575 tons in Iran. The annual system production was 1,833.9 MWh in Iraq and 1,663.5 MWh in Iran. These findings highlight the system's strong potential in mitigating carbon dioxide emissions and offering a sustainable energy solution for urban environments with high pollution levels. Conclusion: This work serves as a foundational contribution to the broader understanding of how oil and gas exporting countries can harness photovoltaic technologies to address escalating energy demands. This is particularly in densely populated urban areas while simultaneously avoiding environmental crises, such as those currently experienced in Tehran. Recommendations: There should be development and implementation of strategic approaches for integrating connected photovoltaic systems play a critical role in strengthening energy security. Addressing emerging challenges, and establishing effective pathways to reduce and prevent environmental degradation in the future.

Techno-economic and environmental analysis of a fully renewable hybrid energy system for sustainable power infrastructure advancement

Integrating renewable energy (RE) into electricity generation enhances sustainability, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, improves energy security, lowers costs, and supports sustainable development, particularly in remote and underserved regions. This study evaluates the feasibility and performance of a hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) designed to meet the energy demands of Hobyo Seaport, Somalia. The proposed HRES incorporates a photovoltaic (PV), wind turbines (WT), diesel generator (DG), pumped hydro energy storage (PHES), and battery energy storage system (BESS). Four configurations—PV/WT/PHES, PV/WT/DG/PHES, PV/WT/DG/BESS, and WT/DG/PHES—were analyzed using HOMER Pro and MATLAB software to optimize system sizing and assess techno-economic and environmental performance. Results indicate that the PV/WT/PHES configuration is the most efficient, achieving a 100% renewable energy fraction, a net present cost of $619,720, the lowest levelized cost of electricity at $0.03845/kWh, and a simple payback period of 0.31 years. Additionally, the system offers significant environmental benefits, mitigating 1,029 tons of CO annually, valued at $20,593 in carbon credits. Over a 20-year period, it reduces cumulative cash flow by 97.1% compared to a diesel-based system. These findings highlight the proposed HRES as a cost-effective and environmentally advantageous solution, establishing its sustainability and practicality for enhancing energy infrastructure in Somalia’s Seaports and similar coastal regions.

Carbon Emission Forecasts Under the Scenario of a 1.5 °C Increase: A Multi-National Perspective

The Paris Agreement is aimed at keeping global warming well below 2 °C while pursuing efforts to limit it below 1.5 °C; however, achieving these goals implies a tight limit on cumulative net carbon emissions, which includes CO2, CH4, and NO2. Moreover, the focus of carbon emission policies should differ from country to country depending on their national circumstances. In this study, based on forecast models, specifically, in 2005, the average annual per-capita CO2 emissions was recorded as 6.8 tons for Brazil, 4.8 tons for China, 8.4 tons for EU28, 1.2 tons for India, 10.1 tons for Japan, 9.0 tons for Russia, and 18.6 tons for the USA. The carbon intensity is expected to range from 37% to 85% across the studied regions. Based on the AIM, POLES, and IMAGE models, the projected carbon prices for 2050 are estimated at USD 2000, USD 2045, and USD 940 per ton of CO2, measured in 2005 US dollars, respectively. The forecast data support carbon policy making in major countries.

The Integration of Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) in Waste-to-Energy Plants: A Review

This paper provides a comprehensive review of the integration of carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies in waste-to-energy (WtE) plants, specifically focusing on incineration, the most adopted process for managing residual waste fractions that cannot be recycled. The review examines the current CO2 capture technologies, including the widely used monoethanolamine (MEA) absorption method, and explores emerging alternatives such as molten carbonate fuel cells and oxyfuel combustion. Additionally, the paper discusses the management options for the captured CO2, exploring both storage (CCS) and utilization (CCU) options, with a focus on current storage projects involving CO2 from WtE plants and the potential for its use in sectors like chemicals, construction materials, and synthetic fuels. Currently, only four large-scale WtE plants worldwide have successfully implemented carbon capture technologies, with a combined capacity of approximately 78,000 tons of CO2 per year. However, numerous feasibility studies and pilot-scale projects are ongoing, particularly in northern Europe, with countries such as Norway, the Netherlands, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and Finland leading the way in the development of CO2 capture, storage, and utilization strategies within the WtE sector. The paper further discusses techno-economic issues for CCUS implementation, including energy demands and associated costs. The use of MEA systems in WtE plants leads to significant energy penalties, reducing plant efficiency by up to 40%. However, alternative technologies, such as advanced amines and calcium looping, could provide more cost-effective solutions by improving energy efficiency and reducing the overall costs. Life cycle assessment studies indicate that CCUS has the potential to significantly reduce CO2 emissions, but the achievable environmental benefits depend on factors such as energy consumption, process efficiency, and system integration. Overall, while the implementation of CCUS in WtE plants presents CO2 mitigation potential and may also be exploited to achieve other benefits, energy requirements and economic viability remain challenging.

Analysis of the Tools for Evaluating Embodied Energy Through Building Information Modeling Tools: A Case Study of a Single-Unit Shell Building

Today, the construction sector is largely responsible for climate change and global warming. The industry generates the largest carbon footprint and is also one of the least digitized industries in national economies. Faced with the challenge of reducing this carbon footprint, BIM is becoming an essential tool for building digital twins, which in turn makes it possible to calculate and track the carbon footprint over time for designed, constructed, and existing buildings. Semantically rich databases such as BIM make it possible to record the past, present, and future states of buildings and infrastructure facilities. To date, primary research using the free and popular UrbanBIM tool has been conducted on ready-made models, e.g., a previously prepared piece of space. In this secondary study, a specific pre-designed shell building in the BIM environment was examined, and the embedded carbon footprint was calculated for it. The calculated result of 76.35 tons of CO2 provides an overview of the solutions used and an analysis of the various elements in terms of their environmental impact. The results of the study indicate a growing need to automate the modeling of building information for analysis and simulation, and then to further manage the information. The paper also identifies limitations and presents future research directions for carbon footprint calculation and tracking.

Effect of Cement Kiln Dust and Sugarcane Bagasse Ash on Black Cotton Soil to be used as Road Subgrade Material in Flexible Pavement Construction

Cement, lime, and Fly Ash (FA) are the major traditional soil stabilizers. Cement production contributes 0.8-0.9 tons of carbon emissions per ton of cement, while lime production generates around 1.2 tons of CO2 per ton of cement. FA is not readily available in all regions, necessitating the exploration of alternative stabilizing agents. Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) and Sugar-Cane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) are waste products from cement and sugarcane production, respectively. This study investigated the use of CKD and SCBA to stabilize black cotton soil. CKD was incorporated into the soil at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10% for standard Proctor compaction, consistency limits, Free Swell Index (FSI), Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS), and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) testing. The optimal CKD content based on UCS and CBR was 6%, while the optimal CKD-SCBA composite was 6% CKD and 10% SCBA. The third part of the Kenyan Road Design Manual (KRDM III) categorizes subgrades by strength based on the CBR, ranging from S1 to S6. Subgrades classified as S1 exhibit the lowest strength (CBR of 2-5%), while S6 denotes the highest strength (CBR of 30% or greater). The untreated black cotton soil, with a CBR of less than 2%, was unsuitable as a subgrade. The CKD-SCBA composite improved the soil's CBR to 16.43%, upgrading it to an S4 subgrade, which can reduce the pavement thickness and associated costs. Other enhancements included an increase in UCS from 97.5 kPa to 555.81 kPa, a reduction in the FSI from 86% to 45%, and a reduction in Plasticity Index (PI) from 26.18% to 15.26%.

The Potential Impact of Peatland Degradation on the Sex Ratios of African Spurred Tortoises

This study explores the correlation between Peatland Degradation, Carbon Flux, and Fauna in the Congo Basin, with a special emphasis on the Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination (TSD) in African Spurred Tortoises. Utilizing data covering the period of 2015–2023 and advanced ecological modeling techniques, the study demonstrates that peatland drainage leads to increasing carbon emissions into the atmosphere, contributing to regional temperature rises that disrupt tortoise populations. Specifically, in severely degraded regions, carbon emissions could reach 20–23.5 tons of CO2 per hectare annually, potentially driving regional temperature increases of 2–3°C by 2050. The analysis integrates high-resolution satellite imagery, carbon exchange measurements, and population density data of African Spurred Tortoises to quantify these impacts. Our findings highlight that, under continued peatland degradation, the proportion of female hatchlings in African Spurred Tortoise populations is projected to rise to 78.4%. However, with effective peatland restoration, this proportion could be reduced to 52.1%, indicating a more balanced and stable population structure. By linking species loss to peatland degradation, this study offers tangible and scientifically validated restoration strategies that can significantly reduce carbon emissions and stabilize local ecosystems. The results emphasize the importance of a systems-based approach to peatland restoration, integrating ecological, social, and policy dimensions to protect biodiversity and mitigate climate change impacts.

Integrating hybrid wind-PV system for reliable electricity generation in remote villages of Jordan

Jordan faces growing energy costs and the depletion of fossil fuels due to its entire reliance on imported oil. To address this challenge, this study proposes a hybrid wind-photovoltaic (wind-PV) system to power a village in Ras Muneef, Ajloun, Jordan. The study outlines a methodology for sizing and optimising the hybrid system to meet seasonal load demands, using the wind-to-PV ratio (RW-PV) to balance wind turbines and PV panels for optimal energy generation. Seasonal load simulations and weather data were incorporated to develop sizing curves, identifying configurations that meet energy needs year-round. Simulations were conducted using Matlab Simulink, integrating meteorological data and load profiles for comprehensive performance analysis. The system, designed for two days of autonomy, includes 20,350 PV panels (300 Wp each) and 81 wind turbines (100 kW each). Results indicate that wind power is more effective during winter, while PV panels perform better in summer. The system achieves a production cost of $0.112 per kWh, with zero loss of power supply probability, two days of battery autonomy, and a Wind/PV ratio of 2. This system generates 25.8–45.3 million kWh of clean energy annually and mitigates up to 565,731 metric tons of CO2 over lifetime.

Production of Green Hydrogen from Wind Energy in India

The report describes India's capacity to produce green hydrogen from wind energy, how it generates power, and whether it could eventually replace grey hydrogen in industrial settings. India will produce more than 5 million metric tonnes of hydrogen annually to meet the industrial demand. On the other hand, 13 million metric tonnes of CO2 are released into the atmosphere for every million metric tonnes of hydrogen produced. In addition to a state-of-the-art evaluation of the green hydrogen technology value chain, the study will include a case study on the production of green hydrogen from a 3-MW wind turbine located in the coastal region of Tamil Nadu. This study indicates that 125 gigawatt-hours of capacity are required for a wind farm. According to this research, wind farms with a capacity of 125 gigawatt-hours may substitute grey and blue hydrogen to meet India's current yearly industrial hydrogen consumption of 5 million metric tonnes. The study focuses on hydrogen storage methods for wind turbine electricity and green hydrogen-based storage facilities. The primary focus of this study is on the possibility of green hydrogen to meet India's needs for industrial and other hydrogen-related applications.

Carbon Sequestration Estimates for Minor Exotic Softwood Species for Use in New Zealand’s Emissions Trading Scheme

New Zealand’s Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) allows growers to receive payments through the accumulation of carbon units for increased carbon stock. For forests < 100 ha, growers rely on pre-formulated lookup tables (LUTs) to estimate changes in carbon stock by age. Currently, minor exotic softwood species, which are predominantly redwood and cypresses, are covered by a general Exotic Softwoods LUT. However, this table has been found to significantly underestimate carbon sequestration for these species. Using a combination of growth models and productivity surfaces, the objective of this study was to provide draft updates for the Exotic Softwoods LUT based on redwood, and two key cypresses (Cupressus lusitanica and C. macrocarpa), at different scales (national, Island level, regional), and to identify the most appropriate scale for a revised LUT. For cypress species, carbon predictions were made using C. lusitanica for the North Island and C. macrocarpa for the South Island, as these are the preferred species for each island. Variation in redwood carbon among New Zealand’s nine regions ranged over two-fold at ages 30 (390–847 tonnes CO2 ha−1) and 50 (926–1956 tonnes CO2 ha−1) and carbon was much higher within the North Island than the South Island. Predicted carbon for cypresses was higher within the North Island than the South Island at all ages and varied across regions, by 38% at age 30 (610–840 tonnes CO2 ha−1) and 12% at age 50 (1019–1146 tonnes CO2 ha−1). These findings suggest that a separate LUT for redwood is warranted, and that cypress species could serve as the default species for a revised Exotic Softwoods LUT. They also suggest that regional tables should be considered for both redwood and cypresses. However, the government may consider factors other than the technical considerations outlined here when updating the LUTs.