Trinitrotoluene Research Articles

Investigating the influence of plate geometry and detonation variations on structural responses under explosion loading: A nonlinear finite-element analysis with sensitivity analysis

Abstract This study presents the results of a numerical analysis of the response of Domex 700 and Dormex 1100 steel plates with varying geometries, combined with several different parameters such as a thickness of up to 6 mm and a trinitrotoluene (TNT) mass. Using ABAQUS software, finite-element analysis was run to examine the structural response ability of the steel plates to explosions. In terms of deformation and energy dissipation, the results showed a large differentiation. A sensitivity analysis was used to examine each simulation result in terms of the structural response performance to explosions and identify the variables that had the greatest impact on variations in the thickness, material, geometry, and TNT mass. The best numerical simulation results were found using the multi-attribute decision-making (MADM) approach. Annotations are utilized to assist in identifying the various modifications made during testing. Annotations LXXI to LVIII achieved the lowest value of 6.176 × 10−09, signifying the best results according to calculations made using the MADM approach. This is evidenced by the structural events, demonstrating that the deformation, von Mises stress, and energy dissipation in the circular plate structure were not significantly impacted by the explosion. The variables that most significantly affect variations in deformation, von Mises stress, and dissipated energy – variables that significantly impact the structural response to explosions – are identified through the sensitivity analysis approach. The results of this research can be used to optimize the structural response performance of circular plates.

Dynamic behavior analysis of steel, aluminum, and composite plates under extreme air blast loadings

The number of terrorist air blast attacks is increasing in a catastrophic way in the current era. However, the selection of material is a crucial task for designing a high-blast-mitigating protective structure. The experimental evaluation of the dynamic responses of various materials under a blast event is highly costly, with many restrictions and environmental pollution. Therefore, to avoid these difficulties, the current study demonstrated a series of dynamic explicit analyses to determine the dynamic responses of the plate structure of various materials and equal masses under air blast loads of 1–3 kg trinitrotoluene (TNT) at 300 mm stand-off distance (SoD). These loads were applied by using the Convention Weapons Effect Program (CONWEP). To correctly predict the mutilation behavior of metallic plates, the Johnson-Cook (J-C) material model was used, and to determine the damage behavior of composite plates, Hashin and Puck-Schurmann criteria were used. The Puck-Schurmann criterion was implemented via user defined VUMAT subroutine. These numerical approaches were first verified with the validations of the literature’s experimental results. To characterize the various plates’ blast mitigation capacity, their mid-point deflection, radial deflection at the instant of peak mid-point deflection, kinetic energy, internal energy, and damage patterns were compared. The influence of applied blast loads on the pressure and impulse variations on the plates has also been investigated. Findings of the analysis showed that the aluminum plate has the highest non-residual deflection resistance, and the composite plate had a maximum energy absorption characteristic under the air blasts.

Blast-Resistant Design of Reinforced Concrete Slabs with Auxetic-Shaped Reinforcement Layout

This paper presents a numerical study of a blast-resistant design of reinforced concrete panels with a novel auxetic reinforcement layout inspired by auxetic materials, which have a negative Poisson’s ratio, i.e., shrink under compression and expand under tension. A series of two-way supported panels reinforced with re-entrant auxetic-shaped rebars were numerically tested under a TNT explosion. The high-fidelity multi-physics explicit solver of LS-DYNA was utilized to analyze the efficiency of the proposed design. Firstly, the incident pressure of a TNT explosion data and the structural response of a conventional reinforced concrete panel under a TNT explosion were successfully validated by comparing with the experimental and empirical results. Secondly, the blast-resistant capacity of the proposed model was evaluated in comparison to two different conventional designs. Moreover, a parametric study was carried out to reveal the driving parameters of the newly proposed auxetic-shaped reinforcement design. It has been proved that the proposed auxetic reinforcement layout significantly reduces the spalling radius and increases the energy absorption capacity of panels. As a result of the parametric study, the increased reinforcement volume ratio was ineffective on the spalling radius, although the cell size of auxetic reinforcement was found to be quite effective for the blast-resistant design of concrete panels. Overall, the proposed re-entrant auxetic reinforced panel performed far better than conventional designs under blast load. With the recent developments in 3D printing technology, the proposed auxetic reinforcement layout is a strong candidate to deal with blast-resistant designs of concrete panels.

The Study on Synthesis and Characterization of Insensitive Energetic Materials Based on 5‐(5‐Nitro‐1H‐1,2,4‐Triazol‐3‐yl)‐1H‐Tetrazole

ABSTRACTThe design and synthesis of insensitive energetic materials are a necessary and challenging work. The synthesis of novel nitrogen‐rich salts based on 5‐(5‐Nitro‐1H‐1,2,4‐triazol‐3‐yl)‐1H‐tetrazole (H2NTT) has been presented. Structural characterization of these two salts was accomplished by utilizing NMR, MS, IR spectroscopy, and X‐ray diffraction. The standard heats of formation were calculated, and the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and sensitivity test were carried out. Their detonation performances were estimated by EXPLO 5 program. These newly synthesized salts showed highly positive heat of formation and low sensitivity. It is noteworthy that the diaminoguanidine salt b exhibited good detonation performance superior to traditional explosive TNT (Trinitrotoluene), making it a prospective candidate for insensitive energetic material.

Impact of Adsorption on the Vapor Availability of Contained Explosives and Drugs

AbstractDetection canines are used to locate explosives, drugs, and other contraband based on the presence of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with the target items, even when attempts have been made to contain them in layers of packaging. It is important to understand the extent to which different materials impact vapor availability through adsorption or absorption and therefore the ability of canines to detect target materials. This study considered how the attenuation of vapor components associated with explosives and drugs (hexamethylene triperoxide diamine (HMTD), trinitrotoluene (TNT), triacetone triperoxide (TATP), and cocaine) by commonly used concealment and storage materials (metal, glass, plastic, and cardboard). Adsorption/desorption affinity was measured using a quartz crystal microbalance which can measure nanogram level mass changes as vapor from an analyte is flowed over and interacts with a sensor coated in a material of interest. Headspace analysis using solid phase microextraction (SPME) with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry or electron capture detector (GC/MS or ECD) measured the VOCs over time as each analyte of interest was exposed to either 50 cm2 or 100 cm2 of each material. Overall, the results demonstrated that the amount of sorption and vapor suppression varies based on the material, with the greatest attenuation of analyte vapor by cardboard, followed by polystyrene, and then glass. Furthermore, it also depends on the analyte, as demonstrated by minimal sorption of TATP, particularly to polystyrene, and the compounds in HMTD having different affinities resulting in an altered vapor profile.

Blast resistance of CFRP composite strengthened masonry arch bridge under close-range explosion

Carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) are recognized for their exceptional strength-to-weight ratio. They offer a viable and effective solution for strengthening and retrofitting masonry bridges, helping to extend their service life, improve structural performance, and meet modern safety and load requirements. Wrapping of CFRP around masonry elements can enhance their confinement and ductility. This flexibility plays a crucial role in preventing sudden brittle failure, allowing for controlled deformation, which is essential for blast resistance. Additionally, CFRP materials possess the ability to flex and absorb energy, which proves beneficial in containing and redistributing forces generated during an explosion, consequently reducing the risk of catastrophic failure. This study employed the coupled Eulerian–Lagrangian (CEL) technique available in the finite element software Abaqus/Explicit to simulate the blast loads. Various detonation scenarios were considered, taking into account factors such as location and their impacts on bridge structures. A detailed micro-model was developed using finite element software and accurate geometric data acquired from FARO laser scanning of the case study. The properties of masonry units and backfill were characterized using the Johnson-Holmquist II damage model and Mohr–Coulomb criteria. The Jones-Wilkins-Lee equation of state (EOS) was applied to replicate the behavior of trinitrotoluene (TNT). In accordance with the JH-II model, the researchers formulated a VUMAT code. The study examined the distinct damage mechanisms and overall structural responses of bridges. By evaluating the blast resistance of individual bridge models, the most critical scenarios were pinpointed. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) was then utilized as a method to fortify bridges against blast loads. A comparison was made between the damage propagation before and after the reinforcement.

Seismic performance of FRP-repaired RC piers after blast loading

Aiming to evaluate the effectiveness of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) repair on the seismic performance of blast-damaged reinforced concrete (RC) piers, the field test and numerical simulation were conducted. Firstly, a successive field explosion test, carbon FRP (CFRP) repair, and lateral cyclic loading test were performed on two 1/2-scale RC pier specimens. The test data including the incident overpressure-time histories of blast wave, damage profiles and lateral force-displacement relationships of pier specimens, etc. were comprehensively recorded and discussed. By comparing with the previous blast-damaged pier specimen, the negative maximum force and ductility of CFRP-repaired pier were increased by 97 % and 44.9 % after 1.0 kg TNT explosion, respectively. Then, an integrated numerical simulation approach based on explicit-implicit switching and full restart algorithms was proposed and validated in predicting the dynamic and quasi-static behaviors of RC piers under successive blast loading, CFRP repair, and lateral cyclic loading. Finally, a prototype RC pier was designed and the suicide vest bomb (TNT equivalence of 9 kg) specified by the Federal Emergency Management Agency was selected as the threat of contact explosion. The influences of FRP type, repair height, and number of FRP layer on restoring the seismic performance of the blast-damaged pier were further discussed. It indicates that, (i) CFRP is more effective than glass FRP and aramid FRP; (ii) increasing the repair height could not significantly improve the seismic performance of pier; (iii) the number of FRP layer has significant effect, e.g., the positive and negative maximum forces after 4-layer CFRP repair are improved by 9.4 % and 45.3 % compared to the unrepaired pier, respectively. The present study could provide a helpful reference for assessing the FRP repair effectiveness on the seismic performance of blast-damaged RC bridge piers.

A high‐temperature resistant benzimidazole‐based porous polymer for efficient adsorption of trinitrotoluene in aqueous solution

AbstractA novel benzimidazole‐based porous polymer, denoted as PTBI, was synthesized utilizing self‐synthesized 1,3,5‐tris(1H‐benzo[d]imidazol‐2‐yl)benzene (TBI) and 4,4′‐difluorobenzophenone as primary materials via a CN coupling reaction, followed by a freeze‐drying process. PTBI displayed commendable thermal stability, as evidenced by a temperature of 475°C at which a 5% weight loss occurred and a char yield of up to 65% at 800°C. Trinitrotoluene (TNT) was effectively adsorbed by PTBI in aqueous solutions, thanks to the combined effects of three π–π interactions and one dipole–π interaction. At 25°C, PTBI achieved a maximum adsorption capacity as high as 280.8 mg/g, with approximately 60% of this capacity attained within just 1 h. Furthermore, a thermodynamic analysis showed that the adsorption of TNT by PTBI was a spontaneous, exothermic process that was followed by a decrease in entropy. It is noteworthy that following five adsorption and desorption cycles, the adsorption efficiency held steady at a relatively high level using acetone as the eluent. These promising results underscore PTBI's significant potential in the realm of TNT wastewater treatment, positioning it as a compelling candidate for further research and application under extreme condition in this field.

The Chronic Toxicity of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemical to Daphnia magna: A Transcriptome and Network Analysis of TNT Exposure.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) impair growth and development. While EDCs can occur naturally in aquatic ecosystems, they are continuously introduced through anthropogenic activities such as industrial effluents, pharmaceutical production, wastewater, and mining. To elucidate the chronic toxicological effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) on aquatic organisms, we collected experimental data from a standardized chronic exposure test using Daphnia magna (D. magna), individuals of which were exposed to a potential EDC, trinitrotoluene (TNT). The chronic toxicity effects of this compound were explored through differential gene expression, gene ontology, network construction, and putative adverse outcome pathway (AOP) proposition. Our findings suggest that TNT has detrimental effects on the upstream signaling of Tcf/Lef, potentially adversely impacting oocyte maturation and early development. This study employs diverse bioinformatics approaches to elucidate the gene-level toxicological effects of chronic TNT exposure on aquatic ecosystems. The results provide valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms of the adverse impacts of TNT through network construction and putative AOP proposition.

UDP-glycosyltransferase UGT96C10 functions as a novel detoxification factor for conjugating the activated dinitrotoluene sulfonate in switchgrass.

Dinitrotoluene sulfonates (DNTSes) are highly toxic hazards regulated by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in the United States. The trinitrotoluene (TNT) red water formed during the TNT purification process consists mainly of DNTSes. Certain plants, including switchgrass, reed and alfalfa, can detoxify low concentrations of DNTS in TNT red water-contaminated soils. However, the precise mechanism by which these plants detoxify DNTS remains unknown. In order to aid in the development of phytoremediation resources with high DNTS removal rates, we identified and characterized 1-hydroxymethyl-2,4-dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (HMDNBS) and its glycosylated product HMDNBS O-glucoside as the degradation products of 2,4-DNT-3-SO3Na, the major isoform of DNTS in TNT red water-contaminated soils, in switchgrass via LC-MS/MS- and NMR-based metabolite analyses. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that 15 UDP-glycosyltransferase genes were dramatically upregulated in switchgrass plants following 2,4-DNT-3-SO3Na treatment. We expressed, purified and assayed the activity of recombinant UGT proteins in vitro and identified PvUGT96C10 as the enzyme responsible for the glycosylation of HMDNBS in switchgrass. Overexpression of PvUGT96C10 in switchgrass significantly alleviated 2,4-DNT-3-SO3Na-induced plant growth inhibition. Notably, PvUGT96C10-overexpressing transgenic switchgrass plants removed 83.1% of 2,4-DNT-3-SO3Na in liquid medium after 28 days, representing a 3.2-fold higher removal rate than that of control plants. This work clarifies the DNTS detoxification mechanism in plants for the first time, suggesting that PvUGT96C10 is crucial for DNTS degradation. Our results indicate that PvUGT96C10-overexpressing plants may hold great potential for the phytoremediation of TNT red water-contaminated soils.

Numerical Study on Explosion Risk and Building Structure Dynamics of Long-Distance Oil and Gas Tunnels

To comprehensively understand the explosion risk in underground energy transportation tunnels, this study employed computational fluid dynamics technology and finite element simulation to numerically analyze the potential impact of an accidental explosion for a specific oil and gas pipeline in China and the potential damage risk to nearby buildings. Furthermore, the study investigated the effects of tunnel inner diameter (d = 4.25 m, 6.5 m), tunnel length (L = 4 km, 8 km, 16 km), and soil depth (primarily Lsoil = 20 m, 30 m, 40 m) on explosion dynamics and on structural response characteristics. The findings indicated that as the tunnel length and inner diameter increased, the maximum explosion overpressure gradually rose and the peak arrival time was delayed, especially when d = 4.25 m; with the increase in L, the maximum explosion overpressure rapidly increased from 1.03 MPa to 2.12 MPa. However, when d = 6.5 m, the maximum explosion overpressure increased significantly by 72.8% from 1.25 MPa. Evidently, compared to the change in tunnel inner diameter, tunnel length has a more significant effect on the increase in explosion risk. According to the principle of maximum explosion risk, based on the peak explosion overpressure of 2.16 MPa under various conditions and the TNT equivalent calculation formula, the TNT explosion equivalent of a single section of the tunnel was determined to be 1.52 kg. This theoretical result is further supported by the AUTODYN 15.0 software simulation result of 2.39 MPa (error < 10%). As the soil depth increased, the distance between the building and the explosion source also increased. Consequently, the vibration peak acceleration and velocity gradually decreased, and the peak arrival time was delayed. In comparison to a soil depth of 10 m, the vibration acceleration at soil depths of 20 m and 30 m decreased by 81.3% and 91.7%, respectively. When the soil depth was 10 m, the building was at critical risk of vibration damage.

GA optimized novel design and analysis of graphene-based antennas for THz spectroscopic security applications

The proposed research paper introduces a novel design of THz graphene-based antennas capable of countering terrorism by detecting explosive materials and drugs. The research work is subdivided into three distinct sections; the initial research entails conducting a comparative analysis of conventional and genetic algorithm-based optimised designs of terahertz antennas utilising graphene material. Subsequently, three supplementary designs are evaluated in comparison to the optimum design: one integrating a copper ground with a graphene patch, another integrating a copper patch with a graphene ground, and a third incorporating both a copper patch and ground. All four optimised designs, each resonating at a frequency of 5.6 THz, are used to detect explosive compounds like Trinitrotoluene (TNT). The optimised graphene-based antenna outshines the rest of the designs in terms of radiation efficiency, with a value of 90.03 %. It also exhibits superior performance regarding S11 parameters, with a value of −53.38 dB, and VSWR, with a value of 1.004, at the resonant frequency. The optimised antenna demonstrates superior performance concerning gain (dB) and directivity (dBi), measuring 6.56 dB and 7.02 dBi, respectively. During the final phase of the proposed research, a graphene antenna was modified to function as a tri-band antenna by incorporating a 180° mirrored f-shaped slot within the antenna’s patch. The tri-band antenna functions at resonant frequencies of 3.37 THz, 4 THz, and 5.2 THz. These frequencies detect explosives and narcotics, notably l-histidine, ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), and PETN in PE. These resonant frequencies hold the potential to be utilised in future applications of 6G technology worldwide.

Application of Explosive Equivalency Approach in Blast-Induced Seismic Effect Prediction Using EXPLO5 Thermochemical Code

Blasting is a key process that plays a significant role in various industries, including mining and construction. To measure the effectiveness and potential impact of a blast generated by different explosives, industry professionals use a widely accepted parameter known as TNT (trinitrotoluene) equivalent. This manuscript provides an overview of the approach based on the application of the explosive equivalency principle in the prediction of the seismic effects caused by the detonation of different explosives. The explosive equivalents of studied explosives are derived from the results of thermochemical calculations using the EXPLO5 code and compared to field tests. The results have demonstrated that the equivalency approach can potentially be a useful tool in the assessment of blast-induced seismic effects.

Effects of structural configuration on perforation/spalling damage and secondary fragment velocity of reinforced concrete slabs subjected to close-in explosion

Reinforced concrete (RC) slabs are vulnerable to localized damage from close-in TNT explosions, suffering perforation and extensive spalling damages that generate high-velocity secondary fragments posing severe risks to nearby facilities and personnel. Current numerical methods such as the Finite Element Method (FEM) face challenges in accurately predicting fragmentation due to mesh distortion caused by large deformations and discontinuities, underscoring the need for enhanced modelling techniques. As a result, although numerous studies have numerically investigated how structural configurations influence RC slab damage under blast loads, the issue of mesh distortion and element erosion in FEM has led to the inability in reliably predicting the associated threats from high-velocity fragments. This study numerically investigates the influences of structural configuration (e.g., concrete strength, reinforcement ratio and layout, dimensions of slabs, and concrete cover depth) on the perforation/spalling area and fragment ejecting velocity of one-way RC slabs subjected to close-in explosions through an ALE-FEM-SPH numerical model, which has been demonstrated effective and reliable in the authors’ previous studies. The results indicate that concrete strength and slab thickness most significantly affect both the damage and fragment characteristics, while the slab's width-to-height ratio, reinforcement ratio, and layout, have less influence, particularly on fragment velocity. Empirical equations derived from extensive numerical data are provided to help engineers and security personnel quickly evaluate the blast effects on RC slabs. The accuracy and robustness of the proposed formulae, which can be straightforwardly used to predict blast fragments of reinforced concrete slabs, have been statistically evaluated and the proposed formulae demonstrate satisfactory precision, with less than 20 % error in estimating damage area, maximum fragment velocity, and total kinetic energy of fragments.

Multiomics insights into the TNT degradation mechanism by Pantoea sp. BJ2 isolated from an ammunition destruction site

Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is a highly toxic organic pollutant, and its biodegradation process and mechanism remain unclear. In this study, five TNT-degrading bacteria were isolated and identified, among which Pantoea sp. BJ2 showed the best TNT degradation potential; it could degrade 97.85 % of 100 mg L−1 TNT within 24 h. Further, five genes (three nemA, one nfsA and one nfnB) directly related to TNT metabolism were identified in Pantoea sp. BJ2. During the degradation of TNT by Pantoea sp. BJ2, N-ethylmaleimide reductase, nitrate reductase and ATP-binding protein of the nitrate/nitrite transport system were found to be significantly upregulated, and five metabolites, including 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene, were also identified. Based on the multiomics analysis, the mechanism of TNT degradation by Pantoea sp. BJ2 was proposed, indicating that the degradation of TNT by Pantoea sp. BJ2 was achieved under the joint action of various functional genes and proteins, including material transport, energy supply and exogenous material metabolism. The findings offer reliable theoretical underpinnings and technical support for a safe remediation of TNT-contaminated sites, providing new insights into the microbial degradation mechanisms of TNT from a multiomics perspective.

New compound XeN14 with high energy density

As a high-energy density material, polymeric nitrogen has attracted considerable attention, while the exceptionally high synthesis pressure hinders its studies and applications. A significant discovery indicates that the insertion of noble gas elements can effectively reduce the synthesis pressure of polymeric nitrogen compounds. This work utilized the particle swarm optimization algorithm and first-principles calculations to extensively explore the stoichiometry of Xe–N compounds under high pressures. Two phases of XeN14, P6mm and P-62m, have been discovered, which are energetically more stable than the basic mixture of Xe and N2. Evidence of charge transfer between Xe and N was found, verifying that Xe plays a crucial role in forming polymeric nitrogen compounds. These two compounds are kinetically stable at pressures ranging from 50 to 200 GPa and exhibit semiconductor properties. A unique channel-like structure was discovered in the P6mm phase. The energy densities of P6mm and P-62m phases are 7.39 and 7.59 kJ/g, respectively, significantly exceeding those of TNT (Trinitrotoluene) and HMX (Octogen), indicating their potential as high-energy density materials.

Odor Dilution Assessment for Explosive Detection

Canine olfaction is a highly developed sense and is utilized for the benefit of detection applications, ranging from medical diagnostics to homeland security and defense prevention strategies. Instrumental validation of odor delivery methods is key to standardize canine olfaction research to establish baseline data for explosive detection applications. Solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography (SPME/GC-MS) was used to validate the odor delivery of an olfactometer. Three explosive classes were used in this study: composition C-4 (C-4), trinitrotoluene (TNT), and ammonium nitrate (AN). Dynamic airflow sampling yielded the successful detection of previously reported target volatile organic compounds (VOCs): 2,3-dimethyl-2,3-dinitrobutane (DMNB) in C-4 and 2-ethylhexan-1-ol (2E1H) in ammonium nitrate and TNT across odor dilutions of 80%, 50%, 25%, 12%, and 3%. C-4 highlighted the most reliable detection from the olfactometer device, depicting a response decrease as a function of dilution factor of its key odor volatile DMNB across the entire range tested. TNT only portrayed 2-ethylhexan-1-ol as a detected odor volatile with a detection response as a function of dilution from 80% down to 12%. Comparatively, ammonium nitrate also depicted 2-ethylhexan-1-ol as an odor volatile in the dynamic airflow sampling but with detection only within the upper scale of the dilution range (80% and 50%). The results suggest the importance of monitoring odor delivery across different dilution ranges to provide quality control for explosive odor detection using dynamic airflow systems.

(Sensor Division Student Research Award) Ultra-Sensitive Photothermal Spectroscopy for Attogram-Level Detection

Molecular-level spectroscopy is crucial for sensing and imaging applications, yet detecting and quantifying minuscule quantities of chemicals remains a challenge, especially when they surface-adsorb in low numbers. Here, we introduce a photothermal spectroscopic technique that enables high selectivity sensing of adsorbates with an attogram detection limit. Our approach utilizes the Seebeck effect in a microfabricated nanoscale thermocouple junction, incorporated into the apex of a microcantilever. We observe minimal thermal mass exhibited by the sensor which maintains exceptional thermal insulation. The temperature variation driving the thermoelectric junction arises from the non-radiative decay of molecular adsorbates' vibrational states on the tip. We demonstrate the detection of photothermal spectra of physisorbed trinitrotoluene (TNT) and dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP) molecules, as well as representative polymers, with an estimated mass of 10-18 g. Figure 1

Numerical modeling of composite spherical-roof contoured core (SRCC) sandwich panels subjected to blast loading

This article investigates the blast response of spherical-roof contoured core (SRCC) and novel spherical-roof contoured core (NSRCC) sandwich panels under blast loading, which involves the core design and material types. Due to the practical difficulties associated with investigating explosive materials and replicating blast loads, finite element (FE) modeling is a favorable method as a functional and convenient alternative. FE models are established under different charge masses of used trinitrotoluene (TNT), which is used in aluminum (AL) and carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) cores of sandwich panels. The Johnson-Cook model and the user-defined material subroutine (VUMAT) predicted the blast performance of AL and CFRP materials on SRCC and NSRCC types with three patterns. The results showed that as the mass of TNT increased from 1 kg to 3 kg, the internal energy was also linearly increased. It was shown that the NSRCC type provided higher internal energy than the SRCC type. The maximum internal energy was shown on the NSRCC2 pattern, which was 41.20 kJ with 3 kg TNT. Moreover, SRCC pattern 1 with AL material provided the minimum deflection compared with the other five patterns. It was indicated that SRCC pattern 1 showed better blast protection performance on 1, 2, and 3 kg TNT. It is highlighted that the SRCC with two patterns can have potential applications on protective structures under blast loading.

Assessment of dynamic response of armor grade steel plates and FMLs under air-blast loads

This numerical study represents an effort to characterize the dynamic behavior of distinct armor-grade steel plates and fiber metal laminates (FMLs) of the same masses under blast loads. The blast resistance of finite element models of square steel plates and FMLs is evaluated by applying conventional weapon effects program air-blast loading ranging from 1 to 3 kg of trinitrotoluene (TNT) at a fixed stand-off distance (SoD) of 0.1 m. A user-defined subroutine is used to implement a failure criterion to determine realistic failures in the composite. A variation of kinetic energy, radial deflection, and energy absorptions of the steel plates and FMLs are determined to discover their blast mitigation performance. The deformation modes and equivalent plastic strain of both the steel plate and FMLs are also compared. The obtained results show that the armor-grade AISI 4340 steel has up to 50.5% smaller peak deflection than the other armor-grade steels. The use of FML with multi-thin layers of composite laminate and steel sheets instead of equivalent AISI 4340 steel plate significantly reduces the peak deflection up to 23.9% under similar blast loading conditions. The findings of steel plates and FMLs also represent their applicability for making complex protective structures.