Timurid Period Research Articles

The Archaeology of Afghanistan: From Earliest Times to the Timurid Period ed. by F. R. Allchin, Warwick Ball, and Norman Hammond

Reviewed by: The Archaeology of Afghanistan: From Earliest Times to the Timurid Period ed. by F. R. Allchin, Warwick Ball, and Norman Hammond J. Mark Kenoyer The Archaeology of Afghanistan: From Earliest Times to the Timurid Period (revised and updated edition). Edited by F. R. Allchin, Warwick Ball, and Norman Hammond. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2019. 752 pp., 36 b&w and 353 color illustrations, 128 b&w drawings, bibliography, index. Hardcover £175.00, US $270, ISBN 9780748699179; PDF £175.00, ISBN 9781474450478; epub £175.00, ISBN 9781474450461. Afghanistan is without doubt one of the most important regions of the world for understanding the interactions between humans in Asia and beyond, beginning from the earliest period of hominin evolution up until the present. This region has attracted antiquarians and historians from the earliest periods of recorded history and has been a magnet for archaeologists, numismatists, and art historians since the eighteenth century. The first comprehensive volume on the archaeology of Afghanistan, published over four decades ago (Allchin and Hammond 1978), was one of the most important resources for scholars working on the history of the region. This new revised and updated edition provides an amazing amount of detail that was not found in the earlier version, as well as totally new material that is both up to date and highly relevant to new research directions. Anyone familiar with the recent political instability of the region would have expected that there has been little new research in Afghanistan, but this volume clearly demonstrates that, even in the context of war and destruction, dedicated Afghan archaeologists and foreign scholars have managed to continue their heroic efforts at documenting and preserving previously discovered remains as well as discovering exciting new information on all periods of Afghanistan’s history. In contrast to the first volume, the new edition has a large number of color maps and photographs. Some of the color photographs are of objects that were originally published only in black and white, but photographs of many newly discovered objects have also been added. A chapter on the Helmand Civilization has also been added to the book, for a total of nine chapters. Some of the chapters have been revised by new coauthors so that, although most chapters contain most of the original text, each chapter includes significant additional text, photographs, maps, and updated summaries. As with the 1978 edition, the 2019 edition was authored by outstanding foreign scholars and it includes a new foreword by a young Afghan scholar, Mohammad Fahim Rahimi, Director of the National Museum of Afghanistan (also known as the Kabul Museum). While one of the editors, Warwick Ball, emphasizes the important new work being carried out in Afghanistan by local Afghan scholars in his introduction to the new edition, there is a significant lacuna in terms of bibliographic references to the research and publications of the Afghan archaeologists themselves. Hopefully, current Afghan archaeologists who have been excavating sites and documenting their own history will be able to prepare a supplement to this volume that includes their important contributions. Chapter 1, written by Sophia R. Bowlby and Kevin H. White, covers the overall geography of Afghanistan using the same text as in the first edition, but their major revisions to the sections on climate and subsistence provide new information and more details. Other major additions are numerous color photographs showing different geographical features and subsistence patterns. Chapter 2 by Richard S. Davis repeats the same basic information on the Palaeolithic found in the first edition because relatively little new archaeology has been carried for this time period. New techniques for calibration of radiocarbon dates has allowed for more precise dating, however. The new calibrated dates provided in Table 2.2 will be useful for comparisons to other regions of West and South Asia. Another important update relates [End Page 492] to the dating and mDNA analysis of a human skull fragment from the site of Darra-i-kur. This skull was originally thought to date to the Middle Palaeolithic due to its association with some charcoal samples dating to 30,000 B.P., but direct dating of the bone itself has now dated the sample to around 4500 B...

A comparative study of Timurid mosques with Evolved Gothic Churches

Considering the wealth of glorious religious buildings in the Timurid period in Iran, which wascontemporaneous with the Evolved Gothic period in Europe, a comparative study has been undertakento explore the architectural effects of these two periods on each other along with their similarities anddifferences. This is an applied historical research that adopts a library research method for data collection.By studying the political, economic, and cultural conditions of these periods and by reviewing fiveimportant buildings belonging to each period, the similarities and disparities of these two architecturalstyles are investigated to shed further light on the interaction of the Timurid and Evolved Gothicarchitecture. Despite the geographic distance, and religious and culture different between the Timuridperiod in Iran and the Evolved Gothic in Europe, which overshadows the interaction of these twoperiods, one can still witness that the religious architecture of the Evolved Gothic period has beeninspired by Timurid architecture in some respects, including building materials, interior decoration ofbuildings and architectural style.

Hindistan Babürlü Devletinde Yazılan Çağatayca Sözlüklerde Devlet Yönetimi ve Askeri Teşkilatla İlgili Kelimelere Dair

Although Persian was the official language of the Mughal Empire, members of the administrative and military classes continued speaking Chagatay Turkic among themselves as a sign of identity. In order to have their children learn Chagatay Turkic as well, they had many Chagatay dictionaries, grammars and language learning books with Persian instructions written. One of the most prominent characteristics of these works is that they demonstrate newly emerging lexical items and explain a number of Turkic and Turkicised lexical elements with new meanings. In this article, by analysing four Chagatay dictionaries including Niṣāb-ı Ḳutbiyye, Niṣāb-ı Türkī der Luġat, Niṣāb-ı Türkī and Zübdetü’l-Esmāʾi’t-Türkiyye, written in Mughal India, I explore the lexical items concerning the state administration and military organisation as a semantic substratum and explain the unfamiliar and original lexical units and semantic formations in them. Some of the lexicon that appears in these dictionaries were either not used or had a very limited use in the administrative or military systems of previous Turkic or Islamic states. They also provide certain old lexical items that gained new meanings during the period of the Mughals. An important part of the administrative and military lexis used in the Moghul State, as well as those used in the Timurid period, are of Mongolian origin.

Reconsidering the Animal calendar of Timurid period and its first day of the year

Reconsidering the Animal calendar of Timurid period and its first day of the year

Images of the Peoples of the World Encountered by the Mongols in the Jamiʿ al-tawarikh

ABSTRACTFour copies of the Jamiʿ al-tawarikh produced at Rashid al-Din’s scriptorium survive: one in Arabic and three in Persian. These codices are fragments of the second volume, which include the history of the non-Mongol peoples of Eurasia, including Ughuz Turks, Chinese, Jews, Franks and Indians. Interestingly, all these manuscripts were in the possession of the Timurid ruler Shahrukh, who ordered his scriptorium to complete the three Persian copies. Considering the section on the history of other nations, none of the Persian copies remains intact, because these parts have been refurbished or completed in Shahrukh’s workshop. These sections in the three Persian codices contain calligraphy and illustrations from both the Ilkhanid and Timurid periods. Since these manuscripts were produced in the royal workshops of the Ilkhanid and Timurid rulers, they reflect the different international relations of the time. These reflections are obvious in the nature, the number and the placement of the illustrations. This paper examines the foreign relations of Iran in the beginning of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries via the codicological study of these manuscripts.

Isfahan during the Turko-Mongol Period (11th-15th Centuries)

AbstractThis article deals with the history of Isfahan during the five centuries between the arrival of the Turks and the beginning of the Safavid period. It attempts to identify the continuities and ruptures from three different perspectives: To what extent can we speak of an urban decline? What was the relationship of the Isfahanis with the imperial rulers? How did the general context impact the makeup and the organisation of the society? It appears that Isfahan demonstrated remarkable resilience over the period, and that it is only beginning with the Timurid period that we can speak of a decline. Likewise, there is remarkable continuity in the ways in which the local elites collaborated with or resisted the imperial players. The role of the Ṣāʿid family, which held the cadial function over four centuries, is emblematic in this respect. Conversely, under special circumstances, the imperial players were able to exert great substantial influence on the local communities, and it is this political backing which explains the strengthening of the Hanafis in the sixth/twelfth century, and that of the Shiis in the following. One of the main accomplishments of this synthesis view of Isfahan history is that it assesses the effects of the Mongol domination relative to that of other periods.

Medieval Kashan: Crossroads of Commerce and Culture

AbstractThis essay first attempts to explain why the Iranian city of Kashan is where it is and then how it came to grow.Extensive use of irrigation allowed an adequate and perhaps abundant agriculture in the surrounding region. The arrival of substantial numbers of Arab immigrants in Kashan in the early Islamic period played an important role in the city’s development and its continuation as a center of Shiʿism. A strong educational tradition produced many talented Kashani officials, who served in the Saljuq and later administrations and sent some of their wealth back to Kashan.It was also in the Saljuq period that Kashan gained a reputation for its production of luxury ceramics. Artisanal traditions were passed from generation to generation and contributed to exports of brass, and especially of textiles, which continued for centuries. Wealthy Kashanis (probably including a fair number of sayyids) invested heavily in charitable endowments, which served the poor and furthered learning in general. In the Timurid period, investments in mathematical education produced several outstanding mathematicians and astronomers. Tax yields from the medieval period may indicate the increasing prosperity of Kashan.

شواهد قبور سمرقند المنقوشة على حصى البازلت خلال القرن الثالث حتى السابع الهجري/ التاسع حتى الثالث عشر الميلادي

In Samarkand’s cemeteries, a distinctive type of gravestones spread, made of large-size river stones. It is a stone formed by nature, which gives it its irregular shapes. This type of gravestone was common in Samarkand in the period from third century AH/ninth century until the beginning of the seventh century AH/thirteenth century CE, and most of it was concentrated in the sixth century AH/twelfth century CE. Inscriptions of these gravestones represent the link between early gravestones in Central Asia and the gravestones from the Timurid period, in which we observe development of the gravestones in terms of the general form, raw material used in its manufacture, shapes of the lines inscribed, and their contents. This research is concerned with study of these tombstones by identifying the type of stone used in the manufacture of gravestones, how to implement the inscriptions, read the inscriptions, analyzed it to access its contents, types of lines engraved on them, and other information about the population of the city.

The Poets Condition of the Timurid Period in Majales-al Nafis

Timurid era is the era of Persian culture and literature efflorescence. Amirs Timuri’s attention to culture has provided base literature for breeding scholar. In Timurid period, a large number of poetry and literature people were commuting in the court of Timur. Eyewitness of two important literary biographies is as a biography of the poet Samarkandi and more importantly Amir Alishir Navai’s Tazkara Majale-Al Nafis. The importance of the second work is that the author had both Divan and Persian literature expertise. Checking presented poets from Navai in Majales Al Nafis is the most important objectives of the present study. The main question is that, which group had higher share in the categories of poets in Majales Al Nafis, and what was the reason? The results show that, poets whom Navai had referred to in his work, have not been outside the three groups, poets agreed with the government, or the opposition and exile, and the third group were also in average. The reason for this division is that, firstly, the desire of Timurid was to ordinary and popular poets, and secondly, selection and anthology of poets in Majales-Al Nafis book has a meaning from the author. This study is intended to explain the poets of the era in Navai’s work with statistical and comparative method.

The structural study of Ghaffarieh Dome tile-workings in Maragheh Town based on laboratory studies

The history of using tiles in Persian architecture dates back to the eleventh century. In the beginning, tiles were made of bricks and mounted with plaster. Thereafter, however, tiles were replaced with mosaics to decorate buildings. The technique of applying mosaics began in the thirteenth century and reached its summit during the Ilkhanid and Timurid periods between the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries. One of the most outstanding buildings in which mosaics were widely used is Ghaffarieh Dome, a fourteenth-century building in Maragheh, Eastern Azerbaijan. The Dome is especially noteworthy for its unique mosaic workings. Therefore, a thorough examination of the mosaics used in the Dome may pave the way for closer studies of the Ilkhanid mosaics (tile-workings) in Iran. Since there is little information on the material aspects of mosaics used in the Ghaffarieh Dome, the body and glaze of the mosaics were examined through instrumental analyses. In order to interpret the results of the analyses, they were compared with existing data about similar mosaics of Islamic lands. The presence of pyroxene (aluminum diopside) in some of the mosaic bodies revealed that the firing temperature limit in the kiln was not, most likely, uniform. Two kinds of glazes, alkaline and lead-based, were used to produce black and turquoise colors.

Studying the Effect of Continent on Three Important Mosque of Timurid Period (Blue Mosque of Tabriz, Goharshadjame Mosque, Jame Mosque of Yazd)

<p class="zhengwen"><span lang="EN-GB">Mosques’ architecture is one of the monuments in the history of Iranian architecture that has alwaysbeen of interest andimportance and in the Timurid period was also welcomed by many architects and artists and e</span><span lang="EN-GB">xamples were built that were used as a perfect model for the architects of the next periods. The architecture of this period is known as a good example of harmony with the environment, which is a result of various climatic, historical, economic, cultural and political factors and have had the greatest impact and benefit fromthe continental and social and politicalconditions of Ilkhani and Seljuk periods. Timurid mosques of Iran are from the important elements of Islamic architecture in terms of architectural form and decorations that need to be reviewed in these two factors. Building mosques in Iran, as a public place and a political state for the spiritual guidance was started at the beginning of Islam and was completed in the Timurid era in the various buildings. Mosques were firstly build as Shabestani and then as one Iwan and two Iwans and four Iwans, as one of the important elements in the cities.</span></p><p class="zhengwen"><span lang="EN-GB">Given that the architectural design, construction and decorations of some of theTimurid mosques are from the architectural masterpieces of Iran, this article has considered three important mosques of the Timurid period in Iran, GoharshadJameMosque,Jame Mosque of Yazd, Blue Mosque of Tabriz, and has analyzed and compared the structural elements of the architecture of these mosques (dome, Iwan, courtyard,and use of geometry in buildings, etc.) as well as considering the climatic factors that impact on those building. The method of research is comparative study and case study and then with an analytical approach, we will compare three important mosquesin terms of political, social situations and also physics and structure and geometry and decorations of them. In addition to reviewing the related papers and books, we will have a comparative table for the physical elements and their decorations. Finally, in addition to achieving the objectives of constructing the mosques and their formal changes in this period and comparingthem, the status of each of them is reviewed in the main section of the paper and the analytical model for future studies for mosque’s architecture according to the continent, is recommended.</span></p><span lang="EN-US">In this research with the aim of considering the methodologies of building mosques’ architecture according to the continent, first we consider the physical features of architecture in Timurid period. Then we consider the architectural physical features of The Blue Mosque of Tabriz, GoharshadJame Mosque, and Jame Mosque of Yazd as some examples. After that, the general characteristics and structural form of mosques according to the continent and the domestic architecture of the regions was analyzed. At the end, comparing the features and similarities of mosques and the differences in mosques’ architecture in this period, we have found some strategies about building mosques according to the domestic and continental architectural features.</span>

“Scholars in power” in the Muslim East. The Timurid period

The article deals with the public activities of the enlightened rulers of the Medieval Muslim East. The authors analyze the events that took place in the Central Asia during the Timurid period. The article examines the years of the rule of Ulugh Beg, Baysunkar-mirza, Babur and Navoi. It is concluded that their multitalented personalities contributed to high achievements of the state.

Ralph Kauz. Hofzeremoniell und Politik bei den Timuriden: Die Gesandtschaften aus China

Ralph Kauz laments the Western centric approach we as scholars have brought to the study of the Mongol and Timurid periods. For him, there is an entire narrative and framework to the east – China – which demands attention and inclusion in Mongol and Timurid studies. In an era when “global studies” are becoming ever more appealing, this kind of thinking could very well be applauded. Indeed, as David Morgan suggested in his seminal The Mongols (1987), we work under the restriction of language b...

Yoichi Isahaya. The Modification of the Twelve-animal Cycle in the Cultural Sphere of Literary Persian: a Consideration of the Twelve-animal Cycle of the Timurid Period

This study of the cycle of twelve animal years draws on the example of the fusion of Turko-Mongol and Iranian elements following the Mongol invasion of the Iranian plateau in the 13th century. Introduced in Iran by the Ilkhanids, this calendar initially started at Lichun, as did the Chinese calendar. In later years however, the starting point was moved to the vernal equinox – the first day of the Iranian calendar. The author concludes from various sources that this change initially took place...

The Influence of Naqshbandi Sheikhs on Educational Process of Timurid Era

In the ninth century (A.H.) the number of Sufis and their sects increased due to Timurids’ attention to Sufis, and as a consequence convents (Khaneqa) became one of the most important economical and political centers. Excessive wealth and spiritual influence of Sufis leaders particularly Sheikhs of Naqshbani kingdom result in Sufism power being twice as much so that, Timurid kings and Sultans used their spiritual influence to legitimize their rules and tried not only to respect and honor them but also, to construct and operate their Khaneqas. Close relationship between Naqshbani’s leaders and Timurid Sultans had a great influence on most country’s affairs, particularly education and training as most of removal and installations in the field of educational affairs were under their views. In this survey, the impact of Naqshbandi’s Sheikhs on educational process during Timurid period was investigated and analyzed by citing library references and implementing analytical-descriptive method.

Significance of Conical and Polyhedral Domes in Persia and Surrounding Areas: Morphology, Typologies and Geometric Characteristics

The aim of this paper is to identify the unique features of the conical and polyhedral domes which topped a majority of distinct tomb towers during the early Islamic era. As opposed to previous general historic studies, this paper introduces a new analytical approach which allows the complete comprehension of the formal architectural language of conical and polyhedral domes based on an epistemological premise of their space syntax. Through an analytic review of selected examples, the paper suggests and addresses the origin of conical domes, their formal morphological compositions and typological forms based on the number of their external shells from the Seljuk era throughout the Timurid period in Iran and nearby regions. The theoretical framework for the formal language of conical and polyhedral domes sheds new light on undiscovered information about the essential characteristics of Persian domes in this region.

Power, Politics and Religion in Timurid Iran * By BEATRICE FORBES MANZ

Beatrice Forbes Manz’s Power, Politics and Religion in Timurid Iran makes an outstanding contribution to our knowledge of the complex political and religious landscape during the reign of Timur’s son and successor, Shahrukh (r. 1409–47). Manz chooses to focus on the reign of Shahrukh in order to answer two central questions, the first, ‘how a government retained power and fulfilled its function without a monopoly of force’, and the second, ‘how society maintained its cohesion’ (p. 6). These questions are difficult to answer even when governments and political institutions are strong and centralized, but applying them to the Timurid period poses particular challenges which Manz addresses skilfully. Chapter 1 provides a complex yet necessary overview of the political situation after the death of Timur. Far from a simple and smooth succession, Shahrukh’s consolidation of power over his father’s kingdom required successful military campaigns, good diplomatic skills, and the ability to rule effectively. Apparently, Shahrukh possessed all of these. After addressing all internal threats to his rule, which largely came from various family members including nephews and various other Timurid princes, Shahrukh had to deal with external challenges, most notably that posed by the Qaraqoyunlu in the West. Manz explains how Shahrukh accomplished all of this, particularly through maintaining the loyalty of Turco-Mongol military leaders. This loyalty receded during the last ten years of Shahrukh’s rule, as the inexperienced descendants of that initial group of loyal commanders took over their fathers’ positions. This ultimately led to the breakdown of Shahrukh’s rule.

The Road from China to Iran: A Jade Candlestick in the Art Institute of Chicago

This study deals with the stylistic evolution of Iranian candlesticks through the prism of a unique jade object now in the collection of the Art Institute of Chicago. By comparing the Chicago jade candlestick with a variety of examples in different media, regions and periods, the study sheds further light on the artistic communication between the Iranian world and China during the Timurid period.

TheTuzūkāt-i Tīmūrīas a Source for Military History

The article investigates whether the Tuzūkāt-i Tīmūrī, a Persian work that became popular in Mughal India, was translated from a Turkic original written during Timur's reign. There are two possible hypotheses regarding the origin of the work: Abū Tālib really found a Turkic manuscript, he revised and translated it into Persian, producing the work entitled Vāqi'āt-i Sāhib-Qirānī, which under the titles of Malfūzāt or Tuzūkāt enjoyed great popularity in Mughal India. The other, more likely hypothesis is that no Turkic original did ever exist, as its existence cannot definitively be evidenced by the analysis of the text. In this case Abū Tālib merely compiled his work by utilising Timurid sources and his personal knowledge of contemporary Safavid Iran and Mughal India. In the following, the article submits the Turco-Mongolian military terms of the work to a thorough analysis on the basis of which three layers are distinguished in the work. The first layer undoubtedly goes back to the Timurid period: the comp...

モンゴル時代におけるペルシア語インシャー術指南書

In the history of the Persian art of insha' (the epistolary art for the official and private correspondence), the Mongol period (from the 13th century to the later 14th century) has been regarded as an age of stylistic regression between the Saljugid and the Timurid periods. This report, through the analysis of some Persian insha' manuals written in the Mongol period, throws light on the continuity and development of the Persian insha' tradition under the Mongol rule, and how it coexisted with the Mongol chancellery system.In the insha' manuals of the Mongol period, it is observed that the way of Persian letter-writing had become more complicated since the Saljugid period. The structure of ideal letters explained in some manuals in the 14th century was more fractionalized than that in those of the 13th century and very similar to the style in the Timurid period. Even some forms that had been considered incorrect became predominant during the period in order to show extreme respect to distinguished addressees.Even under the rule of the Mongol chancellery, the writers of insha' manuals kept the traditional forms of drafting official documents, concentrating on genres of documents which needed the literary skill of insha', like deeds of appointment to religious ranks. At the same time, for many literates, writing of insha' manuals was regarded as a suitable way to display their literary skill and to win their patrons' favor.On the other hand, the insha' writers understood some concepts of the Mongol chancellery in the context of their own insha' tradition and accepted a portion of them positively. For example, the practice of Mongol edicts of writing words with holy or royal referents jutting into the upper margin was very agreeable for them because of its similarity to the convention of Persian letter writing that the name of honorable persons must be written in the upper part of letters. They adapted it by writing honarable words jutting into the right margin.We can conclude that under the Mongol rule the Persian insha' tradition continued developing and prepared for the flowering of the art in the Timurid period.