This paper introduces a novel ontological framework, termed the Ze model, which reframes the foundations of Einstein's relativity. It posits a unified vectorial substance, the state vector Ψ, as the fundamental entity, with its invariant norm ‖Ψ‖² serving as the primary conserved quantity. Space and time are not independent dimensions but emerge as antiparallel projections of Ψ. I demonstrate that Special Relativity (STR)—its invariant interval, time dilation, and the role of the speed of light c—arises as the kinematic limit of the dynamics governing the reallocation of Ψ's magnitude. General Relativity (GR) is recovered as the classical continuum limit, where spacetime curvature is reinterpreted as a smooth gradient in the orientation field of Ψ vectors, effectively unifying matter and geometry into manifestations of a single substrate. The framework exhibits deep conceptual affinities with pre-geometric approaches: it shares the primacy of a deeper space with Twistor Theory and grounds causality in vector directionality, paralleling Causal Set Theory. This synthesis suggests that STR and GR are not fundamental descriptions of an arena but are highly effective theories emergent from a monistic, vector-based reality. The model provides a new pathway for conceptualizing quantum gravity through the proposed quantization of Ψ's orientation.

We show that the FLRW metric, modified to include interrelated variation in the speed of light and gravitational constants, leads to Friedmann equations containing terms that behave like dark matter and dark energy without the cosmological constant. When we permit tired light (TL) to contribute to the redshift due to the expanding universe, thus defined by covarying coupling constants (CCCs), the resulting CCC+TL model has a critical density that is just enough to account for the baryon matter in the universe. The CCC+TL cosmology model is consistent with all of the observations that we had the time and the resources to study, including BAOs (baryon acoustic oscillations), the CMB (cosmic microwave background) sound horizon angular size, the time dilation effect, galaxy formation time scales at cosmic dawn, galaxy rotation curves, gravitational lensing, galaxy cluster and ultra-faint dwarf galaxy dynamics, and the mass, size, density, and luminosity evolution of galaxies. We briefly review them in this paper. Additionally, the new model does not suffer from the coincidence problem of the ΛCDM model and complies with the recent DESI findings of an increasing dark energy density with redshift. We present the fundamentals of the CCC+TL model and discuss its applications to some decisive observations. We have considered temporal variation in the constant for cosmological studies and their spherically symmetric variation in astrophysical situations. We conclude that the illusion of dark matter and dark energy in cosmological and astrophysical observations originates from CCC.

Abstract The gravity in the context of General Relativity (GR) as dynamical curvature of spacetime remains a principal impediment not only to its unification with the other fundamental interactions, but also to the formulation of quantum gravity. One possible resolution involves considering gravity in the context of Special Relativity (SR). This paper presents a procedure, which correlates the GR metrics of curved spacetime and the SR Gravitational Scalar Generalized Potential (GSGP). The GR time dilation is the key-point for the correlation of the two gravities, which implies the corresponding SR Lagrangian. Previous papers have already demonstrated the procedure and the results in cases of FLRW metric, wormholes with spherical symmetry, and Schwarzschild metric (where not only the gravitational motions (free falls) in the context of SR are exactly the same as those in the context of GR with stationary metric, but also the SR and GR Gravitational Red Shift). This paper analytically derives the general formulae of Equations of Motion in Spacetime endowed with Stationary metric in the context of GR and the ones in the context of SR, proving that they are exactly the same. Finally, it presents the case studies of gravitational motions around Schwarzschild blackhole, Kerr rotating blackhole and Standard Ellis-Bronnikov wormhole. Thus, it is shown that these motions have an equivalent SR viewpoint.

This article presents a novel theoretical framework that reinterprets the fundamental nature of space and time. I propose that they are not independent, pre-existing continua but are emergent as orthogonal and anti-parallel projections of a single, conserved state vector in a higher-dimensional space. The model is built upon the core axiom of an invariant norm, ||Ψ||^2 = constant, and a strong geometric condition: the vectorial projections for space (S) and time (T) are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, expressed as S = -κT, where κ is a fundamental constant. From this foundation, I demonstrate how key features of modern physics emerge naturally. The Lorentz transformations and phenomena of time dilation are derived from the compensatory exchange between the S and T components during state evolution. The mass-energy equivalence E=mc² is reformulated as a geometric conversion law, with the speed of light c acting as the exchange constant κ. Furthermore, the cosmological arrow of time is linked to a global drift of the state vector from an initial condition of high temporal potential toward increased spatial expression. The framework offers integrated explanations for causality, black hole structure, and provides pathways for unification with quantum mechanics, suggesting that spacetime itself is a quantum-informational construct.

ABSTRACT For more than a century, predicting human decision-making has been a central concern in psychology, economics and more recently, neuroscience. Attention is a fundamental cognitive process in decision-making, yet its role in social choice remains incompletely understood. This eye-tracking study (N = 42) examines the relationship between social decision-making in a repeated dictator game, modelled using the Fehr–Schmidt inequity aversion framework and process-level measures, including response time and pupil dilation. Visual attention was recorded to assess how attentional allocation relates to choice behaviour and resource allocation. The results indicate that participants consistently allocated more attention to the self-option than to other options, with greater attention directed towards chosen relative to unchosen items. In addition, Behavioural Inhibition and Behavioural Activation System (BIS/BAS) scores were significantly associated with pupil size and response time. These findings suggest that process measures provide valuable insight into the cognitive mechanisms underlying social decision-making.

Abstract In this paper, we first show that it is possible to establish, by rescaling the proper time axis of inertial reference frames in a space-proper time, a new geometric framework for special relativity – equivalent to the standard framework – allowing the construction of kinetic distortion diagrams which directly visualize time dilation and length contraction for inertial motions. We then show that in the presence of a Newtonian gravitational field, the curvature of spacetime given by the Schwarzschild solution can be translated into the new geometric framework by gravitational distortions, allowing the construction of gravitational distortion diagrams to directly represent Newtonian gravitational field effects on space and time. Finally, we discuss the pedagogical value of this approach, particularly through its diagrammatic representations, for teaching relativity to undergraduate students.

Higher morning NR1D1 (REV-ERBΑα) expression, robust circadian activity, and less light at night predict lower depression scores in arctic residents.

The interplay between the black hole information paradox, relativistic time dilation and the extreme gravitational environment near event horizons represents one of the most profound conceptual challenges in modern theoretical physics. While general relativity predicts the irreversible loss of information in classical black hole evaporation, quantum mechanics demands strict unitarily, giving rise to the long-standing information paradox. Simultaneously, the intense curvature of space time near a black hole induces strong gravitational time dilation, fundamentally altering causal structure, the perception of quantum processes and the evolution of matter fields. This paper presents a comprehensive theoretical investigation that unifies these phenomena within the broader search for a quantum theory of gravity. We analyze the semi-classical foundations of black hole thermodynamics, the role of Hawking radiation in information loss and the implications of near horizon time dilation on entanglement dynamics. Additionally, we examine competing resolutions to the paradox including the holographic principle surfaces, firewall proposals, fuzz-ball models and loop quantum gravity inspired discreteness. Though this synthesis, we highlight how extreme gravity serves as a natural laboratory for probing the quantum structure of space time and propose a framework in which time dilation, horizon microstates and quantum information flow are deeply interconnected. Our finding emphasize that a consistent quantum gravitational resolution of the paradox must simultaneously account for causal structure, entropy bounds and the microscopic degrees of freedom encoded in the event horizon, offering new insights into the fundamental nature of space, time and information.

The inertial frames are the frames moving with a uniform velocity in any direction. The second postulate of Special Relativity speaks of constancy of light speed (in vacuum) in all inertial frames, with no riders. However, it is taken to implicitly mean only those inertial frames that are moving along the line from origin to the event’s location, or of light propagation. For the inertial frames moving otherwise i.e. in directions oblique to the latter, the setup is converted back to the same (i.e. parallel moving observer), by taking up the distance component parallel to observer’s motion for transformation, and ignoring the rest of its components. The Wigner-Thomas rotation arises only on account of this limited interpretation. It disappears when obliquely moving (with respect to direction of event from origin) inertial frames are given recognition. The two non-collinear boosts are equivalent to one boost in the resultant direction that is oblique to the directions of both the boosts. The example presented in the article amply demonstrates it. Therefore, to give sanctity to the Wigner-Thomas rotation, the second postulate needs to be supplemented by specifying the “Inertial Frames” with a rider “that are moving along the Line of its (light’s) motion”. Further, the Lorentz Transformation have not been and also cannot be derived for events other than those of light. However, these are universally applied to such events e.g. those of non-collinearly moving frames in this case. Thus, another (third) postulate is required to be added, and i.e. “The transformation arrived at for light applies to other events also, where the distance-time ratio is not equal to c”. Addition of the postulate will provide the much needed authorization for working out of Wigner-Thomas rotation, along with numerous other cases such as length contraction and time dilation on moving bodies, though with errors. The error would obviously be proportional to the difference between the distance-time ratio of the event and c.

The relativistic Doppler Effect is explained from the theory of Relativity by applying an incorrect factor (γ) for the time dilation to the time period of the electromagnetic waves arriving the Earth from celestial sources. This leads to a forecast of redshift. However, if the correct ratio of transformation i.e. is applied to the time period, one gets a blueshift because the frequency, being inverse of the time period, changes in the ratio of . Thus Relativity, when applied correctly, leads to results just reverse of what is professed today. It, therefore, follows that it is not possible to explain the so-called relativistic Doppler redshift by application of Relativity; it requires a different explanation.

Abstract With the rapid development of atomic clocks, the potential for gravitational-wave detection through clock comparisons emerges as a viable prospect for the future. Given the profound signiffcance of gravitational redshift and time dilation in such comparisons, assessing its impact on gravitational wave detection with clock comparisons becomes imperative. We contemplate a two-satellite system tailored for gravitational wave detection via clock comparisons, and simulate the gravitational redshift and time dilation induced by major
celestial bodies within the Solar System. Leveraging this satellite system, we conduct numerical simulations to dissect the inffuence of gravitational redshift and time dilation on detection sensitivity. Our analysis shows that the Sun dominates the gravitational redshift
budget. In the band above 10^−4 Hz, the resulting fractional frequency shift (and time dilation) spectral density is two to three orders of magnitude below 10^−20/√Hz, which is the target sensitivity of clock-comparison searches for gravitational waves in the millihertz band.
Therefore, gravitational redshift and time dilation does not pose a notable obstacle to clock-comparison-based gravitational wave detection in frequencies above 10^−4 Hz. This conclusion is also directly applicable to the frequency shifts of laser links in laser
interferometric gravitational wave detection like TianQin, Taiji, and LISA.

This paper introduces a theoretical framework that bridges the conceptual divide between quantum mechanics and relativity by proposing a fundamental building block of the universe: the “Space-Time* quantum.” The theory posits that every object possesses an inherent property, Time* — defined as the reciprocal of its intrinsic frequency. The Space-Time* quantum is a composite entity, consisting of a timeless space energy and a kinetic Time* energy. This framework provides a new perspective on wave-particle duality, the double-slit experiment, and quantum entanglement. It re-examines the principles of Special Relativity, offering a conceptual and visual explanation of phenomena such as time dilation and length contraction as a consequence of changes in the Space-Time quanta. The theory also provides an alternative view on the origin of the universe and the nature of gravity, suggesting that gravitational effects arise from an energy deficiency rather than a curvature of spacetime. This paper establishes a conceptual foundation for further mathematical development to test and validate these new insights.

Black holes provide a compelling context for investigating how students engage with complex, counterintuitive concepts in physics and astronomy. Despite their prominence in modern astrophysics and popular culture, there is a dearth of research into the ideas students bring into the classroom about black holes. There is also a lack of research-driven tools to document and assess students' understandings of black holes in a systematic way. This study presents the development and implementation of the Black Hole Concept Survey (BHCS), a six-question open-ended instrument designed to identify and catalog pre-instruction and post-instruction ideas held by introductory university astronomy students. Administered to 468 students pre-instruction and 105 students post-instruction across four institutions, the BHCS captures ideas about black hole formation, properties, visual representations, relativistic effects, and detection methods. In this paper, we conclude that the BHCS is a reliable and valid assessment. We report many ideas students have about black holes. These include ideas that are consistent with an expert-like understanding (e.g., black holes form from dying astronomical objects, escape is impossible once one enters a black hole, and time dilation and spaghettification are important effects near a black hole) and ideas that do not match how experts think about black holes (e.g., they relentlessly suck in everything in their vicinity and they are actual pits or holes in space, rather than three-dimensional objects). Some of the student ideas we report have not been previously identified in the astronomy or physics education research literature. These include the ideas that black holes exist for a purpose, that they are fundamentally related to and/or composed of dark matter or dark energy, that infalling observers will be crushed (not spaghettified) as they approach a black hole, and that someone falling into a black hole appears to experience time contraction (not time dilation).

We propose the <i>General Theory of Relative Fabrics (GTRF)</i>, a unifying theoretical framework that posits that gravity does not arise primarily from spacetime curvature induced by mass–energy, but rather emerges from <i>weak nonlocal entanglement between microscopic spacetime fabrics</i> associated with each particle. This perspective replaces the classical dictum, "mass tells spacetime how to curve," with the foundational postulate: "Each mass carries its own spacetime, and gravity emerges when their fabrics entangle". In this model, each particle generates a localized micro-fabric of spacetime that interacts with others through a long-range, decaying entanglement field. This field, scaling as 1/<i>r</i><sup>2</sup> due to the geometric falloff of phase coherence in three dimensions, produces time dilation and curvature as emergent synchronization effects between these fabrics. The gradient in this temporal synchronization manifests macroscopically as the gravitational attraction described by Newtonian and General Relativity (GR). Building on earlier work regarding complex spacetime geometry and the Holographic Address Framework, the GTRF unifies GR and quantum entanglement under a single geometric–informational principle. Crucially, the GTRF framework accounts for dark matter phenomenology not as missing mass, but as the <i>residual coherence of ancient spacetime fabrics</i>. We demonstrate this by deriving modified field equations that incorporate an entanglement stress-energy tensor, which yields asymptotically flat galactic rotation curves without invoking unseen dark matter particles. We show that the weak-field limit of GTRF reduces to a <i>Modified Poisson Equation</i> that naturally generates the required asymptotic velocity profiles. Furthermore, the GTRF maintains consistency with high-precision Solar System tests, as demonstrated by the ability to tune the entanglement coupling functions to satisfy the stringent constraints on the Parameterized Post-Newtonian (PPN) parameters γ ≈ 1 and β≈ 1 and. Gravity, dark matter, and quantum entanglement are thus presented as different scales of the same underlying coherence principle.

An overview of the conceptuality interpretation of quantum mechanics is presented, along with an explanation of how it sheds light on key quantum and relativistic phenomena. In particular, we show how the interpretation clarifies Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, wave function-based and entanglement-based non-locality, interference effects resulting from the superposition principle, delayed choice experiments, quantum measurements, the mechanism of quantization, the reason why entities can establish entanglement bonds and the statistical behaviour of indistinguishable entities. We further argue that the interpretation can also elucidate relativistic effects, focusing on time dilation. Finally, we suggest that it can provide a novel and challenging perspective on evolution. This article is the second in a two-part series devoted to exploring this promising approach to reality. The first part, which serves as a companion to this discussion, outlines the intellectual trajectory leading from the first applications of quantum notions to human cognition to the bold rethinking suggested by the conceptuality interpretation.This article is part of the theme issue 'Quantum theory and topology in models of decision making (Part 1)'.

Special relativity is often introduced through algebraic formalism, yet many of its core ideastime dilation, length contraction, and the relativity of simultaneityare inherently geometric and can feel counterintuitive to beginners. This paper develops a visualization-first pathway that pairs spacetime diagrams with concise animations to make the kinematics of inertial frames perceptible and internally consistent. After motivating the role of diagrams in scientific reasoning, we construct frame-aware figures for three classic thought experiments: the light clock, the ladderbarn paradox, and the train-and-lightning scenario. Each case is presented with coordinated axes [x, ct] and [x, ct], light-cone guides, and simultaneity slices to reveal how invariant light speed and Lorentz structure constrain what observers in relative motion can agree upon. The light-clock diagram shows why moving clocks tick slower by tracing longer null-bounded paths between mirror strikes; the ladderbarn construction demonstrates length contraction as a frame-specific slice through a worldsheet; and the trainlightning example renders frame-dependent simultaneity without contradiction. We discuss affordances [conceptual scaffolding, error diagnosis, and transfer to algebra] and limitations [idealization, static figures for accelerated motion] and outline a design space for interactive tools that link diagrams, algebra, and simulation. The result is a compact, teachable sequence that helps novices see relativistic effects while preserving mathematical rigor.

This research explores the logical and metaphysical possibilities of time travel, a concept that has long fascinated humanity. Central to this inquiry is the theory of closed world lines, which suggests that physical objects may trace self-contained temporal paths. Drawing on Verne’s scientific perspective and Mallet’s experimental work on time travel, the study examines the relevance of modern space-time theories—particularly relativity—which appear to allow models featuring closed world lines. The exploration of time travel challenges the understanding of the future and its potential consequences for human lives. A key text in this investigation is the novel Sea of Tranquility, which plays a pivotal role in addressing the complexities of time. The narrative weaves together past, present, and future through non-linear storytelling, touching upon concepts such as time dilation and the manipulation of temporal and spatial dimensions. The novel’s intricate depiction of temporal relationships offers valuable insights into the potential impact of futuristic technology on human lives and society. Through its exploration of time travel, Sea of Tranquility provides a nuanced portrayal of human experience in the modern world. The study also draws connections between science fiction and the real world, emphasizing the boundaries of innovation and the relentless human spirit that ventures into the unknown. Furthermore, it highlights how science fiction can serve as a metaphor for the dehumanizing and often chaotic effects of technology, as it threatens to consume human lives and blur the essence of reality. This research applies the theoretical frameworks of physics and philosophy to interpret and contextualise the narrative elements of Sea of Tranquillity, shedding light on the novel’s engagement with temporal dimensions and its thematic concerns. Ultimately, the study sheds light on the quest for understanding time and its profound implications for both characters and broader societal reflections within the novel.

Doubly special relativistic spacetime picture and the phenomenology of Planck-scale-modified time dilation

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into the instruction of Einsteinian physics offers transformational possibilities with significant ethical, pedagogical, and policy concerns. AI-driven tools can improve students' understanding of intricate topics such as spacetime curvature, gravitational time dilation, and relativistic motion by providing adaptive feedback, simulations, and tailored learning environments. Nevertheless, their implementation prompts significant apprehensions over educator autonomy, epistemic legitimacy, algorithmic prejudice, data confidentiality, and disparate access to technology. The assumption of functions historically occupied by professors by AI systems poses a risk of dehumanizing physics education, transitioning from inquiry and dialogue to automated instruction. Moreover, AI-generated explanations may be scientifically erroneous or epistemically superficial, thus perpetuating errors instead of fostering profound comprehension. The digital divide exacerbates disparities between well-resourced and underprivileged schools, restricting equitable access to AI-enhanced education. Sustainable integration necessitates policies that guarantee transparency, data protection, teacher training, and curriculum reform that properly incorporates Einsteinian physics into scientific education. AI should function not as a substitute for educators but as a cognitive and pedagogical ally that enhances human instruction, fosters reflective thinking, and democratizes access to contemporary physics. This study advocates for a comprehensive paradigm that integrates technological innovation with ethical accountability, epistemological precision, and social equity.

Abstract Recently discovered supermassive black holes with masses of ∼108 M⊙ at redshifts z ∼ 9–11 in active galactic nuclei (AGN) pose severe challenges to our understanding of supermassive black hole formation. One proposed channel are rapidly accreting supermassive PopIII stars (SMSs) that form in large primordial gas halos and grow up to <106 M⊙. They eventually collapse due to the general relativistic instability and could lead to supernova-like explosions. This releases massive and energetic ejecta that then interact with the halo medium via an optically thick shock. We develop a semi-analytic model to compute the shock properties, bolometric luminosity, emission spectrum and photometry over time. The initial data is informed by stellar evolution and general relativistic SMS collapse simulations. We find that SMS explosion light curves reach a brightness ∼1045-47 erg/s and last 10–200 years in the source frame – up to 250–3000 years with cosmic time dilation. This makes them quasi-persistent sources which vary indistinguishably to little red dots and AGN within 0.5–9 (1 + z) yrs. Bright SMS explosions are observable in long-wavelength JWST filters up to z ≤ 20 (24–26 mag) and pulsating SMSs up to z ≤ 15. EUCLID and the Roman space telescope (RST) can detect SMS explosions at z < 11–12. Their deep fields could constrain the SMS rate down to 10−11Mpc−3yr−1, which is much deeper than JWST bounds. Based on cosmological simulations and observed star formation rates, we expect to image up to several hundred SMS explosions with EUCLID and dozens with RST deep fields.