Tick Borne Research Articles

CANINE VECTOR-BORNE ZOONOSES IN VOJVODINA

Research on vectors and zoonozes in Serbia has been going on for more than a decade now. Due to the climate changes during the last years, the presence of vectors has changed and also the presence of zoonotic agents inside them has changed, too. Vectors that can be found are ticks, mosquitoes, flies, etc. Ticks that can be found in Vojvodina are Ixodes ricinus, Dermacentor marginatus, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Rhipicephalus bursa, Haemaphysalis punctata. The most common diseases known as tick borne in Vojvodina are piroplasmosis, Q fever and Lyme disease. The study done recently has shown that the presence of ticks can be found throughout the whole year in Northern part of Serbia (Vojvodina province). During the last five years different surveys have shown that ticks in Serbia are infected with B. burgdorferi s.l. at a rate of 25-30%, depending on the region. Also, a number of clinical cases of Lyme disease has been registered in humans and dogs. The percentage of ticks infected with B. burgdorferi s.l. in the province of Vojvodina ranges from 25-28%. An analysis of ticks in selected urban regions performed during a three-year period revealed an infection rate of 25%. During the three-year study period, a total of 1224 ticks were collected from different locations in Vojvodina. The dominant species was Ixodes ricinus, accounting for 62% of all collected ticks. Mosquitoes are another vectors that can be found in Vojvodina very often during the warm period of the year (June-October). Diseases that they can carried are blue tongue disease, equine infectious anemia, dirofilariosis in humans and dogs, etc. Diagnostic of dirofilariosis in Serbia begun some 4 years ago when Dirofilaria were found (Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens) in dogs and later on in humans. First cases of dirofilariosis were found in dogs during the autopsy as a side finding. The presence of Phlebotominae has been detected in southern Serbia long time ago and they are known as vectors for leishmaniosis. Their presence has still not been detected in Vojvodina. Three years ago ago several dogs were found with clinical signs (epistaxys, cachexia, pale mucosa, skin leisures, blindness, lethargy) and seropositive finding for leishmaniosis in the central part of Serbia and Vojvodina. At first, all of the dogs were infected abroad, but since 2010, few dogs have been found that have never left their homes. During the period 2008-2010 in Scientific Veterinary Institute „Novi Sad“ 23 dogs vere examined for the presence of antibodies against leishmania by ELISA serological method.

A study on tick borne infections of cattle in Yola locality of Adamawa State

Blood samples were collected and examined for haemoparasites from 1530 cattle composed of four breeds: Adamawa gudali (434), Sokoto gudali (386), Red bororo (414) and Bunaji (298). Six hundred and forty (41.8%) of those examined were infected with haemoparasites. Three species of tick-borne parasites were encountered namely Babesia bigemina, Theileria parva and Anaplasma marginale and a non-tick borne parasite Trypanasoma vivax. Adamawa gudali was the most infected (44.5%), followed by Sokoto Gudali (43.0%). The least infected was Bunaji (37.9%). Chi square analysis showed significant association between infection and breed of cattle (P<0.05). Seven species of ixodid ticks were collected from the cattle namely, Amblyomma variegatum, Amblyomma lepidum, Hyalomma truncatum, Hyalomma rufipes, Boophilus decolaratus, Boophilus annulatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi. Monthly tick distribution shows that the month of April had the least tick burden. Whereas, the month of August recorded the highest tick burden. Key words: Haemoparasites, Chi square analysis.

Isolated polio-like syndrome after tick-borne encephalitis presenting with acute hyperckemia

Tick borne encephalitis virus infection usually shows a biphasic course. In the first stage of illness symptoms are similar to a flu-like syndrome, then after a defervescence period, fever may represent with neurological manifestations ranging from mild meningitis to severe encephalomyelitis. We report the clinical case of an adult man presented with an acute proximal hyposthenia, severe hyperckemia, clinical and laboratoristic evidence of acute tick borne virus infection. This virus has a favourite tropism for the anterior horn cells of the cervical spine segment. Polio-like syndrome, usually affecting the upper limbs, is the clinical phenotype of an infection of the cervical motoneurons. Usually myelitis is associated to severe encephalitis and a complete diagnosis may be difficult in comatose patients. Rarely, an isolated polio-like syndrome may be the sole neurological complication of tick-borne encephalitis.

Diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Lyme borreliosis

AbstractLyme borreliosis is a tick borne disease, endemic to forested and woodland areas, with multiple clinical presentations. Here the authors outline the diagnosis and treatment of the most common manifestations and discuss its prevention. Copyright © 2011 Wiley Interface Ltd

Public Health Argument to Retain Current UK National Controls for Tick and Tapeworms Under the Pet Travel Scheme

At present, the European Council is debating whether the current national controls under the Pet Travel Scheme (PETS), which aims to prevent the introduction of rabies and tapeworms or live ticks and their associated diseases into the United Kingdom (UK), should be harmonized amongst European Union (EU) Member States. There is a strong case to support the retention of control measures on human health grounds. Although many are aware of the implications of rabies infection, few realize the risk to the UK population if current tick and tapeworm controls under PETS were to be removed. If this were to occur, there is a risk that a number of diseases of human health importance may be introduced and become established in the UK. Such diseases include alveolar echinococcosis, tick borne encephalitis, tularaemia and Mediterranean spotted fever; all of which are found in other EU Member States but do not occur in the UK. These four diseases are responsible for a significant burden of disease in Europe, and current national controls under PETS have been highly effective in so far preventing their introduction into the UK.

The application of monoclonal antibody 2A10 on protein chip for detecting of Flavivirus

Objective To evaluate the Flavivirus specific monoclonal antibody(McAb) 2A10 as detective antibody for simultaneously identify tick borne encephalitis virus( TBEV), Japanese encephalitis virus( JEV), dengue ( DEN )-2, DEN-4 and yellow fever virus ( YFV ) by antibody microarray technique.Methods The antibody microarray was developed by spotting TBEV, JEV, DEN-2, DEN-4 and YFV specific McAb on chip as capture antibodies. After incubating with cultured viral supernatants of the above viruses, CY3 labeled detective antibody 2A10 was added to the chips. After reaction, the antibody microarray was scanned and the results were analyzed. By comparing the signal intensities of different spots on chips,the detecting titre and sensitivity of 2A10 for Flavivirus were determined, and the value of 2A10 in detection of Flavivirus was evaluated. Results The hybridization results demonstrated that the titre of 2A10 for Flavi2A10 was specific for Flavivirus and could be used as universal detective antibody for Flavivirus on antibody microarray. Key words: Protein chip; High-flux; Flavivirus; Monoclonal antibody

Epidemiologic Situation on Natural Focal and Zoonotic Infections in Privolhzskiy Federal District in 2000-2009 and the Prognosis for 2010

The analysis of epidemiologic situation on hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome, tick borne borreliosis, tick-borne encephalitis, leptospirosis, tularemia, brucellosis, anthrax, rabies in 2000-2009 in Privolhzskiy Federal District (PFD) was carried out. 94746 patients were registered in that period, hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome, tick borne borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis account for 96.5 % of them. The prognosis of epidemiologic situation of stated infections in PFD in 2010 was made.

Antiretroviral agents: Focus on Maraviroc for the Treatment of HIV-1-Infected Adults

Over a decade has passed since several groups identified the chemokine receptors CXCR4 and CCR5 as key co-receptors for HIV entry. CCR5 is more important in HIV transmission and during the early course of HIV infection. It is also apparent that protection from HIV infection is afforded to those lacking CCR5–-the so called delta-32 homozygotes; in those heterozygous for this mutation, an attenuated course of HIV-infection is observed. Provocatively, those with modified expression of CCR5 are physiologically normal with the exception of poorer outcomes with some of the viral encephalitides specifically West Nile virus and Tick Borne encephalitis. The small molecule, orally-bioavailable CCR5 receptor antagonists, including, maraviroc (MVC), are allosteric inhibitors that lock the CCR5 receptor into a conformation such that the receptor is not able to bind HIV envelope protein; the molecules also variably block intracellular signalling induced by different receptor-binding chemokines. The aims of this review on the CCR5 receptor inhibitors are to summarise information relevant to treatment in individuals with HIV-1 infection. Data from the licensing studies, the side-effect profile and putative long-term risks of CCR5 receptor inhibitor exposure, tropism testing and mechanisms of resistance will be reviewed. The potential for using this class of agent as an immunomodulating agent will be detailed. Given that MVC is the only licensed drug in this class at present and reflecting the greater body of work describing this agent, the majority of information in this review relates to MVC. Last, the authors propose the place of MVC in the hierarchy of HIV therapy and future opportunities for research.

Schwere Frühsommer-Meningo-Enzephalomyelitis ohne Liquor-Pleozytose

Tick borne encephalitis (TBE) is an important viral encephalitis in central and eastern Europe. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pleocytosis has been described in all published patients so far. This may be due to selection bias, however, as CSF pleocytosis is often used as a case definition parameter. The frequency of TBE without CSF pleocytosis is unknown. We report two cases who developed severe TBE without CSF pleocytosis. A normal CSF cell count should therefore not discourage from the differential diagnosis of TBE and deter from serological testing in patients with a clinical constellation suggesting TBE.

Strategic control of ticks with synthetic pyrethroids in &lt;i&gt;Theileria parva&lt;/i&gt; endemic areas in Tanzania increases calf growth and survival rates

The effect of tick control by strategic dipping in synthetic pyrethroids on growth and survival rates of calves in Eastern Tanzania where Theileria parva and other tick borne infections (babesiosis, anaplasmosis and ehrlichiosis) are endemic was measured. One day to five months old Tanganyika short horn zebu ( Bos indicus ) maintained on pastures were divided in two groups; group 1 (n=1340) were non treated control and group 2 (n=17920) were dipped regularly in pyrethroid acaricides at 14 day intervals. Body weights, mortality and survival rates of calves were determined by portable weighbridge and monitoring. Mean weights of group 1 calves at 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 months of age were 28.0±1.09, 46.5±2.39, 53.3±2.01, 66.4±2.83 and 83.1±3.89 Kg respectively, growth rate on average being 11.1 Kg/month. Mean body weights of group 2 calves at same ages were 28.0±0.97, 46.0±0.24, 73.0±2.18, 96.7±2.60 and 101.7±2.01 Kg respectively, average growth rate being 14.8 Kg/month. Mortality rate in group 1 calves was 37.5% compared to 2.96% in group 2 calves. It is concluded that tick control increases calf growth and survival rates. Keywords : East cost fever, Theileria parva , endemic stability, tick acaricide Tanzania Vet Journal Vol. 25 (2) 2008: pp. 88-95

7 東北地方中部のマダニ相とマダニ保有リケッチア検査(第54回日本衛生動物学会北日本支部大会講演要旨)

7 東北地方中部のマダニ相とマダニ保有リケッチア検査(第54回日本衛生動物学会北日本支部大会講演要旨)

The Benefits of East Coast Fever Immunization (Ecfim) in East Coast Fever Disease (EFC) Control in Kenya

East Coast fever immunization (ECFiM) using infection and treatment method (ITM) was done in Kiambu District between 1994 and 1996.an impact assessment was study on ECFiM using a structured questionnaire was carried out in 1998. On 230 farms immunized and 40 control farms, the response by farmers was analysed Using EPI-INFO version 6. A total of 84.3 % of the farmers considered ECFiM to be safe. In ECF immunized farms, spraying of cattle using acaricide has been relaxed from once a week to twice a month. 90.8 % of the farmers who had ECFiM technology and integrated tick control and tick borne disease control will make it possible for the introduction of superior breeds in areas where ECF was a major constraint in Kenya. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 22 2001: pp. 63-65

Renitelo Cattle Dermatophilosis and PCR–RFLP Analysis of MHC Gene

Renitelo breed is a cattle breed created at Kianjasoa station (Madagascar) by a triple crossing Malagasy Zebu x Limousine x Afrikander. This breed besides many valuable advantages, such as rapid growth and drought power, presents a huge disadvantage which is sensitivity to skin disease, dermatophilosis, previously known as streptotrichosis. This disease caused by Dermatophilus congolensis is one of the major threats for the population of Renitelo cattle. An allele of MHC gene has been shown to be dramatically associated to hypersensitivity to the disease in other cattle breed. To bring further information to tick borne disease clinical survey, mainly dermatophilosis, we wanted to verify if such allele could be found in this breed. Renitelo cattle included in this study were chosen for the presence of dermatophilosis lesions in more or less severe form (N = 17). These animals were blood sampled and a genetic analysis on the MHC gene BoLA-DRB3 was performed, by PCR amplification using BOD 31 & BOD 32 primers. Amplified products were analyzed by RFLP using enzymes. Restriction band profiles were characterized according to previously defined patterns. Three cows out of the 17 cattle analyzed for MHC gene presented the hypersensitive allele FDA. Two out of the three hypersensitive cows were pure breed while one was half breed. All the cows presented dermatophilosis lesions at least during rainy season but one of them particularly suffered from severe lesions covering all its body and died of the illness. This study shows that hypersensitivity allele found in other bovine breeds can be found in Renitelo breed. This result seemed to suggest that this characterization could be utilized in breeding program for this breed.

Durch Zecken übertragene Krankheiten

It is known for many years that tick-borne diseases have worldwide a high economical impact on farming industry and veterinary medicine. But only in the last twenty years the importance of such diseases were notified in human medicine by the medical community and the public with emerging of the tick borne encephalitis virus and the description of Borrelia burgdorferi. It is often forgotten that many other infectious agents as bacteria, virus, Rickettsia or protozoa can be transmitted by ticks. Such diseases are rarely diagnosed in Europe either they are overlooked and misdiagnosed or they are connected with special professional activities. The development of new regions for tourism with different out door activities (adventure trips, trekking, hunting) leads to an exposure to different tick borne diseases, which are often misdiagnosed.

Mild cognitive impairment after Tick borne encephalitis

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is potentially debilitating disease caused by virus called TBEV (Tick Borne Encephalitis Virus). It is transmitted by the bite of a tick. Tick borne encephalitis used to have wide distribution, including Europe and Asia. Natural foci of TBE had been localized in Lublin region of Poland as well. According to the databases of the Department of Occupational Biohazards of Institute of Agricultural Medicine, they had observed an increase in the incidence of tick-borne encephalitis in the Lublin region from the early of 1990's. Since the beginning of the year 2001, all the patients who contracted tick-borne encephalitis in Lublin's region were examined. Only patients who had been suffering from tick-borne encephalitis for the last seven years were included to the study. Long lasting cognitive consequences of the illness have been noticed. Of the original 38 patients, 21 persons (all under 55 years of age) were diagnosed with cognitive impairment similar to that observed as the pre-dementia period of the Alzheimer's disease. Cognitive decline could have been diagnosed as mild cognitive impairment according Petersen et al. criteria. The decline of the cognitive status hasn’t been observed in examined patients with. Moreover neither improvement nor decline has been observed in this group after six months. Diagnosis of human TBE is usually based on serology, which has a number of pitfalls. Thus the preferred diagnosis is still based largely on clinical findings. The outcome of the disease could also mimic many neurological diseases. Consequently, the history of the patient with cognitive decline should be carefully examined especially in the endemic regions for TBE.

Spatial and management factors associated with exposure of smallholder dairy cattle in Tanzania to tick-borne pathogens

A cross-sectional study of serum antibody responses of cattle to tick-borne pathogens ( Theileria parva, Theileria mutans, Anaplasma marginale, Babesia bigemina and Babesia bovis) was conducted on smallholder dairy farms in Tanga and Iringa Regions of Tanzania. Seroprevalence was highest for T. parva (48% in Iringa and 23% in Tanga) and B. bigemina (43% in Iringa and 27% in Tanga) and lowest for B. bovis (12% in Iringa and 6% in Tanga). We use spatial and non-spatial models, fitted using classical and Bayesian methods, to explore risk factors associated with seroprevalence. These include both fixed effects (age, grazing history and breeding status) and random effects (farm and local spatial effects). In both regions, seroprevalence for all tick-borne pathogens increased significantly with age. Animals pasture grazed in the 3 months prior to the start of the sampling period were significantly more likely to be seropositive for Theileria spp. and Babesia spp. Pasture grazed animals were more likely to be seropositive than zero-grazed animals for A. marginale, but the relationship was weaker than that observed for the other four pathogens. This study did not detect any significant differences in seroprevalence associated with other management-related variables, including the method or frequency of acaricide application. After adjusting for age, there was weak evidence of localised (<5 km) spatial correlation in exposure to some of the tick borne diseases. However, this was small compared with the ‘farm-effect’, suggesting that risk factors specific to the farm were more important than those common to the local neighbourhood. Many animals were seropositive for more than one pathogen and the correlation between exposure to the different pathogens remained after adjusting for the identified risk factors. Identifying the determinants of exposure to multiple tick-borne pathogens and characterizing local variation in risk will assist in the development of more effective control strategies for smallholder dairy farms.

The basic reproductive number of tick–borne encephalitis virus

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is reciprocally transmitted between Ixodes ricinus ticks and small mammals. Recently, transmission between co-feeding ticks has been postulated as an epidemiological by important mechanism of perpetuating the agent. To empirically examine the question whether the "traditional" mode of transmission is sufficient to maintain enzootic TBEV transmission, the basic reproductive number R(0) of TBEV could be estimated under this model for sites in which TBEV is enzootic. I propose an empirical estimator of R(0) for TBEV which is based on longitudinal stage-specific local tick infestation densities assessed by live trapping of small mammals. A Gibbs sampler-based 95%-credibility interval is presented. When applied to published field data from TBEV enzootic sites sub-critical R(0) estimates are obtained for both sites. I discuss potential shortcomings of this method and possible implications of these findings on the discussion of supplemental mechanisms of transmission.

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE INCIDENCES OF EAST COAST FEVER (ECF), ANAPLASMOSIS AND BABESIOSIS IN THE BOVINE CASES MANAGED BY AMBULATORY SERVICES OF THE FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, KABETE

The purpose of this investigation was to establish the incidences of tick borne diseases (TBD) in cattle. The diseases investigated were East Coast Fever (ECF), Anaplasmosis and Babesiosis. The data used was obtained from the large animal clinic of the Faculty of Veterinary medicine covering a period of 8 years (1996-2003). From the total number of bovine cases recorded (8706), the incidences of the clinical tick borne diseases was 7.8%, with ECF, Anaplasmosis and Babesiosis accounting for 62.9%, 32.8% and 4.3% of the cases respectively. The confirmed cases of the tick borne diseases represented 2% of all total bovine cases (8706) attended by ambulatory services over this period although only 42.7% were presented for laboratory confirmation. East Cost Fever, Anaplasmosis and Babesiosis were confirmed in 65 %, 41.7% and 61.5% of their respective clinical cases. It was concluded that tick-borne diseases were a major problem and ECF was still the most prevalent tick-borne disease in this area. Issues on the number of cases in this area, sample collection, field and laboratory diagnosis are discussed. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 29 2005: pp. 21-24

Lyme Disease - A Hazard of an Appointment to the United States

Lyme disease is just one of the many tick borne diseases to be encountered within the United States that can affect humans. To the visitor who confines their time to major conurbations the risk of contracting Lyme disease is minimal. However, anyone planning a hiking trip during tick season must take precautions to prevent being bitten and possibly infected. For those of us who live within an endemic area the shower after a days gardening is not just to remove sweat and dirt but also an opportunity to check for, and if necessary remove, any ticks that may have chosen a human host. Fortunately, the liberal use of insecticide around our house combined with one of our cat's single pawed attempt to eliminate the local white-footed mouse population appears to have been effective in reducing the tick count.

The prevalence of serum antibodies to tick-borne infections in Mbale District, Uganda: The effect of agro-ecological zone, grazing management and age of cattle

Between August and October 2000, a cross-sectional study was conducted in smallholder dairy farms in Mbale District, Uganda to assess the prevalence of ticks and tick-borne diseases under different grazing systems and agro-ecological zones and understand the circumstances under which farmers operated. A questionnaire was administered to obtain information on dairy farm circumstances and practices. A total of 102 farms were visited and sera and ticks were collected from 478 animals. Sero-prevalence of tick-borne diseases was determined using an enzyme-linked immunoassay. Acaricides were used indiscriminately but the intensity of their use varied with the grazing system and zone. Cattle from different farms mixed for various reasons. During the dry seasons farmers have to get additional fodder from outside their farms that can result in importation of ticks. The prevalence of ticks and serum antibodies to tick-borne infections differed across the grazing systems and zones. The highest serum antibody prevalence (>60%) was recorded in the lowland zone under the free range and tethering grazing systems. The lowest tick challenge and serum antibody levels (<50%) were recorded in the midland and upland zones under a zero-grazing system. These findings suggest that endemic stability to East Coast Fever, babesiosis and anaplasmosis is most likely to have existed in the lowland zone, particularly, under the tethering and free-range grazing systems. Also, endemic stability for babesiosis existed in the upland zones. Endemic instability for East Coast Fever existed in the midland and upland zones. These structured observational studies are instrumental in planning of control strategies for ticks and tick borne diseases since production systems and the cattle population at high risk of the diseases in the district have been identified.zone agro-ecological zone