Tibetan Buddhism Research Articles

Border Dispute and development programme in Arunachal Pradesh Contestations between India and China.

The eastern Himalayan frontier, particularly the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, has long remained a volatile axis in Sino-Indian relations, shaped by historical grievances, national security imperatives, and regional geopolitics. This dissertation investigates the multilayered nature of the border dispute between India and China over Arunachal Pradesh, with a specific emphasis on how geopolitical contestation intersects with developmental aspirations in the region. It seeks to unpack the dynamics of territoriality, state-building, and diplomacy in one of the world’s most militarized and strategically sensitive borderlands. The study explores the historical legacy of the McMahon Line, the 1962 Sino-Indian War, and the continuing cycle of diplomatic negotiations, military standoffs, and infrastructural competition. By examining both macro-level strategic discourse and micro-level community impacts, the dissertation adopts a multidisciplinary lens that integrates insights from international relations, strategic studies, borderland theory, and development policy. A focal point of analysis is the district of Tawang, a site of intense Chinese territorial claims and deep religious significance for the Tibetan Buddhist world. Tawang serves as a critical node in understanding how contested sovereignty, cultural heritage, and strategic geography converge. The dissertation closely analyzes India’s dual-track strategy: reinforcing its territorial claims through large-scale infrastructure and defense build-up, while simultaneously promoting civilian development aimed at enhancing integration and reducing alienation among local populations. Drawing on field-based observations, secondary sources, and policy analysis, the research explores how development programmes such as road construction, telecommunications, and educational expansion both empower communities and generate new tensions—particularly when they intersect with traditional livelihoods, ethnic identities, and ecological sensitivities. It raises essential questions about the sustainability and inclusiveness of state-led development in politically charged environments. In conclusion, the dissertation offers pragmatic policy suggestions that stress the importance of diplomatic foresight, sustainable development models, ecological sensitivity, and active local participation in shaping a peaceful and resilient frontier. By reimagining contested borderlands not as zones of conflict but as bridges for connectivity, cultural dialogue, and cooperative development, this work contributes to broader debates on territorial conflict, regional security, and inclusive governance in South Asia.

Buddhism in Gandaki Province: Exploring Buddhist Culture and Literature within the Gurung Community

This article presents a comprehensive study that begins with an examination of the province’s demographic and Buddhist cultural heritages, followed by an exploration of the Gurung community’s origins, their Buddhist customs, culture, literature, and historical ties to the land. The Gurung community is recognized as the indigenous group that has inhabited this region since early history. According to the oral history of Gurung Kerlo, they migrated southward from the frigid northern Himalayas in search of a warmer climate, ultimately settling in Kohl Sothar, located in the southern part of the Annapurna Himalayas. Here, they developed an indigenous culture rooted in ancestor worship and influenced by Bon traditions. The arrival of Buddhism in Tibet further enriched this culture through ancient Buddhist Nyingma tantra and mantras, leading to the emergence of the Buddhist Lama tradition within Gurung society. This study highlights traditional Buddhist texts such as Choka Choe, utilized in Gurung life passage rituals, as well as the death rituals of the byang-gter traditions and the contemporary hdon chog text. The methodology for transliterating ritual texts in Nepali and participation in the ritual process reveals that the primary cause of obsolescence is the limited transmission of Buddhist knowledge from lineage masters, Consequently, the new generation of Gurung Lamas is connected to the new learning center and adopting ritual practice in modernized hdon chog procedures.

Supernatural and natural seismic framing in a Tibetan Buddhist community

Supernatural and natural seismic framing in a Tibetan Buddhist community

Decorating Tibetan Buddhist Manuscripts: A Preliminary Analysis of Ornamental Writing Frames

Buddhist books have always played a central role in the lives of Tibetan people. This is evident by looking at the hundreds of thousands of manuscripts and xylographs produced by Tibetans, and then copied, multiplied, worshipped, spread, and transmitted uninterruptedly from religious masters to disciples over the centuries. Tibetan manuscripts and xylographs have started to be studied in their entirety only recently, and the interest for their visual aspect, material features, and social life has exponentially grown, becoming crucial to progress in different fields of study, to deeply understand the way in which Tibetan Buddhist people interact with such artefacts but also to preserve a disappearing cultural heritage. This essay will focus on a so far neglected element of Tibetan Buddhist manuscripts, namely, decorations of writing frames. Any element found in a Tibetan scripture is essential from care and conservation viewpoints since it contributes to preservation for as long as possible. This is fundamental to spread Buddha’s word and to accumulate spiritual merits to progress on the path towards Enlightenment. The numerous elements exhibited in manuscripts may help locating their provenance and/or narrowing down their dating. This will also lead to a better understanding of the spread of certain scriptures within the various Tibetan areas. This essay attempts to provide a preliminary analysis of decorated writing frames found in Buddhist manuscripts produced in different periods with the twofold aim of tracing their use and codicological aspects and investigating the type of texts that were mostly chosen to be decorated as such.

Knife's edge

AbstractIn this piece of flash (non)fiction poetry in the mode of Lydia Davis, I reflect on moments of what I call “relational affect,” during my early 1990s fieldwork in the famous Tibetan Buddhist monastery town of Labrang in southwest Amdo Tibet (SE Gansu province, China).

All flesh is equal

Abstract Research has consistently shown that in comparison to some Western cultural groups, such as American and British individuals, people from Eastern Asian cultures pay heightened attention to the hierarchical position of interaction partners, thereby displaying greater politeness to high-ranking individuals. This study aimed to challenge the long-standing assumption that politeness is invariably contingent upon the status of communication partners in Chinese culture. We demonstrated that due to their religious belief in the principle that “all flesh is equal,” Chinese Buddhists exhibited consistent levels of politeness irrespective of the status of their interlocutor. In Study 1, we investigated how Han Taoists and Buddhists responded to junior or senior individuals when declining a request. The results indicated that while Taoists demonstrated increased politeness to senior colleagues compared to juniors, the recipient’s status did not affect the politeness levels of Han Buddhists. Additionally, there were no observed differences in politeness between the two groups in the junior condition. Study 2 replicated these findings among Tibetan Buddhists. Collectively, these findings suggest that religious affiliations may exert enduring effects on important aspects of politeness strategies and communication styles.

A Study on Glass Pagodas from the Palace Museum, Beijing

This paper examines the glass pagodas produced in the Qing imperial palace for Tibetan Buddhist rituals. Drawing from archival and material evidence, it explores the innovative techniques of the Imperial Glass Workshops in creating these intricate, multi-component objects. Combining glassblowing, casting, and cold-working methods, the pagodas showcase exquisite craftsmanship and the symbolic significance of glass in Buddhism. The study situates these artifacts within the broader context of Qing Buddhist culture, revealing the esteem for glass as one of the Seven Treasures in Buddhism and its multifaceted roles. By analyzing their production, decoration, and contexts, the research illuminates the intersections of art, religion, and imperial patronage embodied in these artifacts. It contributes insights into Qing material culture and the esteem for glass in Buddhist practice.

Imperial and Religious Dependency in a Twelfth-Century Tibetan (Auto)Biography

ABSTRACT This article examines the Tibetan biography of a legendary eighth-century Indic tantric master, Padmasambhava (‘the lotus-born’). He is said to have converted the Tibetan emperor Tri Songdétsen (khri srong lde brtsan, 742–c. 800 CE) and thus helped spread Buddhism there; and reverence for him now spans all traditions of Tibetan Buddhism. The primary focus will be a twelfth-century Copper Island biography compiled by a Tibetan adept who claimed to have pre-incarnated as the Tibetan emperor himself. Further, he claimed that the life-story of Padmasambahava was in some sense the autobiography of the master, who prophesied that the emperor would ‘discover’ such textual ‘treasure’ as this biography in his twelfth-century reincarnation. The (auto)biography narrates Padmasambhava’s overthrow of the old Tibetan order and creates new Buddhist norms of kingship, revelation and devotion. This text thus highlights the importance of non-European types of life writing that play with being both autobiography and biography, remembered and revealed writing and idealized Buddhist scripture. This example forms part of the valorisation and re-envisioning of empire according to very different values, and uncovers how largely asymmetric dependency on the empire is turned into strong dependency on Buddhist masters and deities, real or imagined, in post-imperial Tibet.

The Wolf in Sheep’s Skin: The Discrepancy between the Promises of Religious Freedom in the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China and the Actual Practices in Mainland China

This article analyzes how the Chinese authorities guarantee the freedom of religion and belief in the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, yet simultaneously violate it under Xi Jinping’s leadership. The religious demography and historical background of politics and religion offer reasons for the Chinese Communist Party to hold a negative perception of religion, including the five official religions and other beliefs. It also explains the Party’s motivations for overseeing and restricting the religious freedom of all individuals and groups. The Constitution of China states its respect for the freedom of religion and belief for all individuals and groups. However, some terms in the Constitution are ambiguous and may indicate certain implications. In practice, the Chinese authorities do not respect their Constitution and have established the State Administration for Religious Affairs to monitor all religious groups. Under Xi Jinping’s leadership, various regulations, measures, and policies reveal that the Party-state actively implements its anti-religion agenda. The illustrated incidents demonstrate that the religious freedom of minorities, such as Catholics, Protestants, Hui and Uyghur Muslims, and Tibetan Buddhists, is especially violated. Spiritual groups are regarded as “evil cults” and are arrested under the Criminal Law. The atheist and authoritarian state considers that all these religious groups may use their religion to threaten the stability of China.

Pema’s Quest in Shambhala (2024)

Shambhala is a mystical kingdom in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, a centre of spiritual and philosophical discourse. It focuses on Pema's quest in Nepal. It examines the symbolic and thematic features present in the film Shambhala, directed by Min Bahadur Bham. The film, which delves deeply into the protagonist's private and spiritual journey, projects the search for meaning and identity. A qualitative research methodology is employed in this paper, focusing on the investigation of narrative elements of the film Shambhala. The research looks at the filmmaking techniques, dialogues and visual treatments to analyse the thematic issues of the film. In addition, Stuart Hall's cultural theory and philosophical discourse will be used to contextualise the film within the Nepalese context. In addition, Erik Erikson's theory of psychological development, Henri Tajfel's theory of social identity and John Turner's theories of self-categorisation are used to analyse self-identity. For conflict, Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory and Carl Jung's Jungian shadow theory are used, while for spirituality, Abraham Maslow's self-actualisation, Ken Wilber and Stanislav Grov's transpersonal psychology are used. These perspectives help to examine how Pema's identity has been shaped, contested and reinterpreted over time. The paper uses narrative analysis, thematic interpretation and cultural theory to explore the deeper meanings behind the film's content and to illuminate its broader philosophical implications. It argues that Shambhala functions as a mythical exemplar of self-discovery, in which Pema's physical excursion is reflected as an inner transformation towards self-awareness, conflict resolution and spiritual enlightenment.

Maker spaces, walking, and mentorship as ways to develop transversal skills

This essay describes two experiments in a transformative, transversal education that rely on uniquely different pedagogies and epistemologies connected to art and artmaking. The first example explores a STEAM education maker space among Indigenous students in New Mexico. The second example is an experiential learning project using walking with others to explore ideas about enlightenment, empathy, and wholeness framed by Tibetan Buddhism in the Himalayas of Nepal. These experiences provided a window into transversal competence within the contexts of STEAM education, belief, spirit, and emotional resiliency. These two projects describe pedagogical competencies, including mentorship, developing cultural awareness, emotional well-being and whole-person development that respond to critical issues for shaping today’s world. The maker space embraced transversal competencies and thinking dispositions connected to studio habits of mind such as paying attention, developing craft, persistent sustained investigation, envisioning and empathy. The author sought collaborative cross-fertilization in sites that embody concern about responding to our collective crisis and future in creative multidisciplinary ways.

‘They Are Properties of the Deity, Not Sentient’: Unfolding the Tibetan Buddhist Concept of Plant-Hood

‘They Are Properties of the Deity, Not Sentient’: Unfolding the Tibetan Buddhist Concept of Plant-Hood

The Road to Divine Land: Iconography, Deity, and Aesthetic Style

Dongba painting is an ancient art form created by the ancestors of the Naxi people. As a masterpiece of Dongba scroll painting, The Road to Heaven, exemplifies the simplicity and beauty of the primitive Dongba religion and stands as a unique treasure within Naxi painting, possessing significant value for both art and religious research. The Road to Heaven serves as an essential religious ritual artifact in the Dongba religion of the Naxi people. Utilizing the format of a long scroll painting, it depicts the Naxi people’s reflections on the origins of life; the relationships between humans, nature, and society; and the exploration of life’s ultimate destiny, thereby presenting a distinctive worldview. This article constructs a theoretical analysis framework based on an iconographic study of The Road to Heaven, exploring the unique artistic representation, aesthetic spirit, worldview, and religious origins of the Naxi people to gain a deeper understanding of the construction of their spiritual homeland. At the level of pre-iconographic description, this article primarily analyzes the subject matter and contents of The Road to Heaven, the materials employed in the painting, and its artistic features. The iconographic analysis examines the thematic elements of The Road to Heaven; the virtual world structure of the Dongba religion’s imagined realms of gods, humans, and spirits; and its simple, natural, vivid, and imaginative aesthetic style. At the level of iconological interpretation, in this article, the characteristics of the religious beliefs shown in The Road to Heaven and the main factors influencing its aesthetic spirit are analyzed. We reveal that although the Dongba religion intersects and integrates with Tibetan Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, Daoism, and other ideologies and cultures, ancestor worship remains a dominant force guiding Naxi behavior. The unique natural environment, historical migrations, and multicultural exchanges of the Naxi people are the primary factors shaping their aesthetic spirit. By systematically analyzing The Road to Heaven from the perspective of iconology, this study provides evidence of its profound connections with Naxi social history, offering a more comprehensive view of the Naxi people’s aesthetic spirit and cultural connotations while presenting new approaches for researching The Road to Heaven.

Two Early Biographical Accounts of Atiśa Preserved in Tangut Sources

While the extant Tibetan biographies of Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982–1054) are abundant, most of the datable ones were completed three hundred years after Atiśa’s death. However, two Tangut manuscripts offer early biographical accounts of Atiśa as they were written in the Tangut State (1038–1227). Centering around Atiśa’s life at Vikramaśīla and his journey to Tibet, the narratives within the Tangut texts both resonate with and diverge from the more conventional accounts found in sources like the Extensive Biography (Rnam thar rgyas pa) and the Well-Known Biography (Rnam thar yongs grags). As a result, these Tangut sources emerge as invaluable resources for studying the biographical tradition of Atiśa, as well as the dissemination of his life story in the unique context of the Tangut State during the rise of Tibetan Buddhism therein. This article introduces and translates two Tangut biographical accounts along with relevant Tibetan textual materials. Its aim is not only to present these new sources but also to utilize them to examine the development of Atiśa’s biographical tradition. Furthermore, it demonstrates how Tibetan and Tangut studies can be methodologically integrated.

Tibet Etkili Budist Uygur Metinlerinde Bir ‘Kadın’ Temennisi: Erkek Formunda Yeniden Doğum

In Tibetan Buddhism, ‘woman’ is depicted, Dharma is at the center of what is said and religious symbols are positive towards ‘woman’. Images of enlightened female Buddhas frequently appear in the visual arts of Tibetan Buddhism. Spiritual enlightenment in religious teaching, practiced predominantly on the basis of liberated female symbolism, is applicable to both men and women. But considering the history of Buddhism, it can be seen that in Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism, ‘woman’ is in the background and is especially excluded from the teachings and community. ‘Woman’, who does not have a high status in the relevant teachings, is generally an evil, deceptive, lustful and seductive figure. Although there are symbols and narratives in Tibetan Buddhism that show ‘woman’ as a liberating source of spiritual power, the situation is different in some examples witnessed especially in Tibetan-influenced Buddhist Uyghur texts. One of these examples is related to the subject of ‘reincarnation’. In the phase known as Tantric Buddhism, although ‘female’ deities are at the forefront, there is a wish for ‘rebirth of female’ individuals in male form in the relevant texts. This wish is contrary to the principle of equal gender, which is influenced by Tibetan Buddhism. In this respect, the present study consists of evaluations on the examples of kız etözinte tugma-, tişi ažunınta tugma- ‘not to be born in the form of a woman or a female being; being born in male form’ and tişi etözin tegşür- ‘to want to change into a female form; being born in male form’, which are witnessed in Tibetan-influenced Buddhist Uyghur texts. The study will first present the view of the concept of 'woman' in Buddhism and then examine the justification(s) for ‘not being born in the female form’ on the basis of relevant examples.

Dreaming oneself awake: Psychological flexibility, imaginal simulation, and somatic awareness in Tibetan Buddhist dream yoga.

Dreaming oneself awake: Psychological flexibility, imaginal simulation, and somatic awareness in Tibetan Buddhist dream yoga.

Sustainable Development of Mountain Tourism: Reading Mountaineering Narratives from Sherpa and Non-Sherpa Perspectives

After Nepal allowed Mount Everest ascent for foreigners in the 1950s, the number of climbing enthusiasts has been mushrooming each year. The growing number has considerably contributed to the economic development of the local Sherpas and the Nepal government alike. But it has concurrently brought threats to the local culture and the environment, which has consequently drawn serious attention of the locals, environmentalists, policy makers, and writers. The mountaineering writers, Jamling Tenzing Norgay and Jon Krakauer have raised voice for the environmental concern in their narratives: Touching My Father’s Soul and Into Thin Air respectively. My paper aims at exploring how these authors express their views on sustainable mountain tourism, environmental reverence, and cultural preservation through their narratives. After analyzing the narratives from the perspective of responsible tourism and Sherpa spirituality (based on Tibetan Buddhism), the paper finds out that both authors show concerns on the onslaughts induced by commercialization of Everest tourism such as untimely casualties, environmental degradation, and cultural impacts. The paper concludes that both authors, being aware of such detrimental effects of mountain tourism, call for a responsible tourism that works for the development of socio-cultural, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainable tourism in the destination area. But, while, for Norgay, sustainability is attenable through the teachings of Tibetan spirituality, for Krakauer, it is through effective tourism policies. Finally, reading these texts from this perspective, the study expects to add a critical reading into the relationship among mountain tourism, Sherpa culture, and environmental reverence.

Understanding the host heterogeneity in religious destination: a multigroup analysis of distance perceptions and emotional solidarity

While host-tourist relationships are critical for tourism sustainability, inadequate studies were conducted in sacred places by considering the heterogeneity of the religious community. Taking Sertar, a Tibetan Buddhist destination in China, as a case study, this work aims to examine how the hosts perceived the local tourism development through host-tourist relationships, and whether the perception vary in different resident subgroups. The intertwining of Buddhist cultural heritage and tourism development in Sertar allowed the local population dividing into three groups: monks, residents and migrants. By integrating perceived distance theory, emotional solidarity theory, and social exchange theory, this study proposed a conceptual framework to test and compare these three subgroups’ support for tourism development. Multigroup analysis via PLS-SEM indicates that migrant workers exhibit the strongest tourist affinity, while monks most strongly perceive the tourism benefits. The three focal groups’ closeness to visitors has a greater impact on emotional solidarity than cultural distance, thus revealing the host community’s tolerance of cultural diversity. The findings are expected to assist policymakers in understanding multiple voices of community stakeholders for tourism sustainability.

Continuity as Care: Devotional Maintenance, Renewal, Accumulation, and Disposal in Tibetan and Himalayan Buddhist Material Religion

This paper draws from the author’s direct experience with material care, adaptation, renewal, and disposal made while working within Himalayan and Tibetan Buddhist practitioner communities as a museum professional, conservator, and object-based researcher. It considers the function and utility of Buddhist tantric religious objects in terms of their care and capacity for practitioner engagement. In addition to exploring specific examples of what is referred to here as ‘devotional maintenance’, this paper will discuss how these strategies for object custodianship are related to Tibetan and Himalayan religious life and the specific epistemological and soteriological paradigm in which these actions are performed. Working from the perspective of a non-practitioner and material specialist, this research builds on observations of material care-taking to engage with local concepts of continuity, value, and longevity, including practices of accumulation, renewal, or disposal. Thinking critically about the methods and standards of heritage preservation provokes a discussion of how they can be interpreted as acts of care. At the same time, this paper will explore material custodianship through the cultivation of merit and an object’s capacity to transmit ‘blessings’ or the gift of beneficial influence (byin rlabs).

Higher Hierarchs of Tibetan Buddhism in Early Song-Shas of Mongolian-Speaking Peoples

This paper continues the exploration of early song records from Mongolian-speaking peoples (Khalka Mongols, Oirat, Kalmyks, Buryats). Introducing song-shas into scholarly discourse is of significant interest for studying the broader issue of the development of genre systems within Mongolian song folklore. The examination of these song-shas is also crucial for reconstructing the historical evolution of Buddhism among the Mongols. For the first time, this article analyzes the representations of the higher hierarchs of Tibetan Buddhism (Tsongkhapa, Dalai Lama, Panchen Lama) based on early records of song folklore preserved in archives in Saint Petersburg, a substantial portion of which has been published by the author in the collection “Kalmyk Folk Songs and Melodies of the 19th Century” (2015) and in the monograph “Kalmyk Folk Songs and Melodies from the 19th to Early 20th Century: Research and Materials” (2023). Additional materials for studying the hierarchs of Tibet and their depictions include folklore (legends, tales, epics), lexicographic, historical, and ethnographic sources, as well as translations of Buddhist hymns (rapsals). Through an analysis of the song texts, the author concludes that the examined early song-shas provide evidence that complements and expands knowledge about the higher hierarchs of Tibetan Buddhism, who have had a significant impact on Buddhism among the Mongols.