Threat Theory Research Articles

Symbolic or realistic? The role of perceived threat in alibi credibility judgement

The integrated threat theory (ITT) highlights the role of symbolic and realistic threats in predicting negative attitudes towards out-group members. However, little is known about how perceived threat may influence credibility judgement. Drawing from social identity theory and ITT, this study aims to expand current knowledge by examining a conceptual model. The model posits that perceived realistic and symbolic threat moderate the relationship between a suspect’s ethnicity and credibility judgement. 404 Israeli-Jewish students participated, reading an alibi statement provided by either an Israeli-Jewish or an Israeli-Arab suspect, then answering questions about the credibility of the alibi statement and perceived threat. As hypothesised, the Israeli-Jewish suspect’s alibi was perceived more credible than the Israeli-Arab’s alibi. Also, symbolic threat moderates the relationship between a suspect’s ethnicity and credibility judgement. These results underscore the importance of understanding majority–minority relations in criminology.

The impact of master–servant relationships in human–robot collaboration on customer perceptions and behaviors in frontline retail encounters

PurposeThis research examines empirically the concept of master–servant relationships in human–robot collaboration (HRC). Drawing on leader–member exchange and intergroup threat theories, this paper develops and tests a novel research model that links the working relationships between human frontline staff and humanoid social robots (HSRs) to customers’ perceptions of realistic threat and trust, and, consequently, their intention to use service robots in retail stores. In addition, the paper tests the moderating role of speciesism.Design/methodology/approachThis paper consists of four online experiments studying the effects of master–servant roles in HRC in frontline retail. Data for the studies was collected from US participants and members of Prolific. Multiple moderated mediation models using SPSS v29 PROCESS 4.0 were used in the analyses to test the proposed hypotheses.FindingsThe role of master–servant relationships between human retail staff and HSRs influences customer perceptions of realistic threat and trust toward HSRs. Speciesism increases the negative mediating effects of realistic threat and reduces the positive mediating effects of trust, ultimately affecting consumers’ intention to use retail robots when they perform a master (vs. servant) role during HRC in frontline retail encounters.Originality/valueThe present research examines the likely working relationships between human frontline staff as subordinates (i.e. servants) and HSRs as their immediate supervisors (i.e. masters), as well as the spillover effects on customers’ perceptions in hybrid service encounters. The results contribute to recent research in which job titles of AI agents can influence customers’ perceptions of those agents (e.g. Jeon, 2022). In addition, this research showcases how speciesism moderates these effects.

The influence of the Ukraine war on threat perceptions and security dynamics in the Western Balkans

This paper explores how the Russian-Ukrainian war has influenced threat perceptions and security strategies in the Western Balkans, a region historically shaped by internal vulnerabilities and external geopolitical pressures. Focusing on states such as Kosovo, Serbia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina, the study employs a qualitative approach, combining in-depth analysis of national security documents, political rhetoric and expert commentary, complemented by descriptive public opinion data to trace evolving threat perceptions across the Western Balkans. The findings reveal a fragmented security landscape marked by historical grievances, geopolitical rivalries and the emergence of non-traditional threats like cybercrime, hybrid warfare and environmental degradation. Pro-Western states, including Kosovo, Montenegro and Albania, increasingly align with NATO and the EU to counter perceived Russian aggression, while Serbia maintains close ties with Moscow to balance against Western influence. Grounded in Barry Buzan’s multidimensional security framework and Stephen Walt’s balance of threat theory, the analysis highlights the interplay between historical legacies, economic vulnerabilities and external geopolitical dynamics. This study addresses a critical gap in the literature by systematically examining the evolution of threat perceptions in the Western Balkans, offering valuable insights into the region’s complex security environment amidst global tensions.

Revisiting the concept of stereotype threat(s): Is it all about the situation?

Nearly 30 years ago, Steele and Aronson (1995) proposed the concept of stereotype threat. Despite the rich literature on the topic, the robustness and significance of stereotype threat effects face scrutiny due to unsuccessful replications and meta-analyses. This article moves beyond methodological issues to address potential conceptual challenges that may underlie these difficulties in assessing stereotype threat. One major challenge is the difficulty in clearly defining and measuring stereotype threat, as it is often conflated with its outcomes, particularly performance effects. Another challenge relates to its situational nature, which has been interpreted too narrowly, assuming uniform experiences of stereotype threat across all groups. This article advocates for a return to a broader understanding of stereotype threat, one that recognizes the interaction between situational and individual factors within a larger societal context. Such an approach is essential for effectively testing stereotype threat theory across diverse groups and outcomes, reinforcing its situational foundation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

The Five Eyes Allies and China: Assessing Threat Perceptions and Power Dynamics

Abstract China's expanding role in global affairs, along with its economic, military, and technological capabilities, have increased concerns about it being a potential threat to U.S. hegemony. Consequently, since 2017, threat perceptions have heightened, with China increasingly viewed as a strategic competitor and rival. While the"China threat theory"is widely analyzed, it is often approached from a U.S.-centric perspective, neglecting the viewpoints of other key actors. This study aims to address that gap by examining also the threat perceptions of four US allies—New Zealand, Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom—under the Five Eyes intelligence partnership. By analyzing their national security documents from 2008 to 2024, the study seeks to identify the presence, frequency, and sources of perceived threats. The findings indicate that although China as a threat is a multifaceted concern in issues such as identity, intentions, and geography, these countries primarily perceive China’s capabilities as the main source of threat. Finally, all states have elevated their threat perceptions of China, justifying decisions to counter its power in the Indo-Pacific as the main theatre of competition and to reinforce multilateral and bilateral alliances against Beijing.

The U.S. public disapproves of corporal punishment in schools for some kids more than others: evidence from an online experiment on (school) criminalization

ABSTRACT Guided by racial threat theory, the following study centers on the Mississippi public, corporal punishment, and the unique experiences of cisgender and gender expansive girls who continue to allude public and research attention. Using original survey data, the study tests whether the Mississippi public’s implicit anti-Black and anti-gender expansive biases impact 1) their ratings of school personal performance, 2) their belief of the student’s testimony, 3) their justification of corporal punishment, and 4) their belief on whether the incident was prejudice. Findings indicate that for the rating of the punishment fits the crime, the rating was significantly higher for the Black American gender expansive group compared to other groups, controlling for scenario type and other covariates. In contrast, the study finds most participants felt the corporal punishment is an inappropriate response to misbehavior and view it negatively. Implications for this contradiction for research, policy, and practice are discussed.

Microaggression against Asian Americans during the pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic led to a rise in hate incidents, including microaggressions, against Asian Americans, yet research on this issue remains limited. This study examines the relationship between demographic composition and microaggressions during the pandemic through minority-group threat theory, using Collaborative Multiracial Post-Election Survey (CMPS) data. Findings show that a higher immigrant population increases the likelihood of Asian Americans experiencing microassault and microinvalidation, while a larger Asian population decreases this likelihood. These results highlight the role of demographic factors in shaping anti-Asian microaggressions. The study contributes to the literature by addressing a gap in understanding the factors influencing microaggressions and discusses limitations and policy implications.

Cueing authenticity via curls, kinks, and coils: Natural hair as an identity-safety cue among Black women.

Black women professionals face pressure to alter their natural hair (i.e., naturally textured hair and/or styles associated with Black individuals), undermining their identity-safety in the workplace. An identity-safety cue can signal social fit, or an environment that values attributes associated with one's identity, and foster identity-safety among Black women. Integrating social identity threat theory and the state authenticity as fit to environment model, we exclusively recruited Black women (N = 1,693) and investigated whether identity-safety cues conveying that natural hair was valued in the workplace promoted general identity-safety beliefs, as well as aspects of identity-safety specific to natural hair. Exploring Black women's workplace experiences (i.e., Study 1) revealed that perceptions of their organization that favored natural hair (i.e., hair-based social fit) significantly predicted their authenticity and hair discrimination, even when controlling for the presence of Black employees and/or employees with natural hair. Our experimental studies found that exposure to a Black or white employee with a natural (vs. traditional) hairstyle promoted authenticity, while only viewing a Black employee with natural hair mitigated hair discrimination (i.e., Studies 2-4). At the same time, only a Black (vs. white) employee-regardless of hairstyle-encouraged belonging and trust (i.e., Studies 2 and 3). In Study 4, our direct manipulation of hair-based social fit promoted Black women's authenticity and alleviated hair discrimination, even in the absence of viewing a Black employee and/or employee with natural hair. Collectively, we demonstrated that conveying natural hair is valued cues social fit and cultivates identity-safe professional spaces for Black women. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Protest and Incumbent Support: Evidence From a Natural Experiment in Ghana

How do protests shape incumbent support in lower-income democracies? Protests serve an accountability function by informing voters about government performance, but can also polarise opinion around pre-existing social and political identities. Leveraging an anti-government demonstration in Ghana that intersected an original survey in the field, we find that respondents interviewed immediately after the protest are more trusting and approving of the President. This effect is robust across multiple bandwidths, specifications, and placebo tests, and is driven by those who voted for the ruling party at the previous election. Our findings are consistent with theories of social identity and group threat, where supporters of an unpopular administration rally to their in-group’s defence. By contrast, the protest does nothing to shift opposition voters’ strongly negative prior beliefs. We show how anti-government protests can sometimes bolster incumbent support, extending the study of partisanship and identity politics to an understudied democratic context.

The Politicization of Fear: Politicized Threats as Sources of Racial and Religious Group Threat

ABSTRACT Group threat theory postulates that prejudice is tied to majority group members feeling threatened by minority racial groups and have focused on how marginalized groups create perceptions of threat; however, political conflict between Democrats and Republicans may generate perceptions of threat toward both majority and minority group members. This paper explores politicized fears as sources of threat directed at racial and religious groups. Using the Baylor Religion Survey, I investigated the possibility that the effects of political orientation on feeling threatened by selected racial and religious outgroups operate through fears of political outgroups. Regression models assessing feeling threatened by Muslims, African Americans, conservative Christians, and European Americans show dramatic increases in coefficients of determination with the inclusion of measures of politicized threat. Mediation analysis indicates that indirect effects associated with feeling threatened by political groups hypothesized to be feared by supporters of those groups are greater than the direct effects of political orientation, but this is not true concerning the indirect effects associated with feeling threatened by political groups that tend to support a given racial or religious group. Group threat can be activated by the political activism of minority and majority group members with political threat being a better predictor than general political orientation.

Threat Perception, Otherness and Hate Speech in China’s Cyberspace

ABSTRACT This study conducts a focused examination of hate speech in China’s digital sphere, investigating four primary types of targeted narratives. Leveraging theoretical constructs from intergroup threat theory and employing critical discourse analysis guided by topic modeling, it posits that such hateful narratives articulate perceived threats against distinct political, economic, or cultural outgroups, with the specific characteristics and origins of these threats varying according to the targeted entities. Specifically, the analysis elucidates that animosity towards the Japanese is mainly characterized as a realistic threat, accentuated by geopolitics-induced confrontation and hostility. Hate speech aimed at the LGBT community symbolizes a symbolic threat, stemming from profound discrepancies in societal norms and values. Discriminatory rhetoric against rural residents is depicted as embodying a negative stereotype threat, largely indicative of class-based segregation and moral exclusivity. Moreover, derogatory expressions towards foreigners in China are identified as a group esteem threat, mirroring a nationality-centric otherness and a discontent with their perceived preferential treatment. Implications for understanding the civic potential of digital politics in China are discussed.

Hate Crime as Social Control: Integrating Black's Theories of Conflict Management and Social Time

Despite three decades of hate crime research encompassing both group threat theories and micro‐level perspectives, the social milieu explaining bias‐motivated crime remains inconclusive. Empirical inconsistencies regarding the social dynamics and structural features conducive to hate crime suggest the need for alternative frameworks for understanding bias‐motivated behavior. We integrate Black's theory of social control with his theory of social time to offer one such alternative that positions hate crime as a distinct form of conflict management with its own unique “conflict structure.” Focusing on the case as the unit of analysis, we specify the conditions that define the conflict structure of hate crime cases, including the absence of alternative social control, social distance and the lack of cross‐cutting social ties, and economic, relational, and cultural marginality. Further, we consider how changes in the vertical, relational, and cultural dimensions of conflict structures may impact the prevalence of hate crime. Our approach offers testable propositions, emphasizes the importance of case‐level and longitudinal data, and suggests long‐term strategies for bias crime prevention.

Overcome the gender gap: analyzing massive open online courses through the lens of stereotype threat theory

Abstract Despite ongoing progress towards gender equality in education, women remain significantly underrepresented in computer science—a field still shaped by stereotypical expectations in our society. This gap is evident in both traditional classroom settings and online learning platforms such as MOOCs, where women face psychological barriers that hinder their learning success. As MOOCs increase accessibility and democratize education, it’s particularly important to address the barriers women face in these platforms. By analyzing 338,459 negative reviews from 8,067 IT and software courses offered by the MOOC provider Udemy, we explored the differences in how men and women experience these online learning environments. Our analysis was complemented by ten expert interviews, which helped us develop key propositions to explain these gender-based differences and derive guidelines to overcome them. Our results reveal that men and women criticize similar topics in IT courses, demonstrating that they do not belong to different user groups. However, differences between male and female reviews emerge within each topic. These differences are reflected in different communication styles, demands and areas of emphasis, shaped by gender-specific backgrounds, socialization processes and stereotypes. To overcome these differences, we propose seven guidelines drawing form Stereotype Threat Theory for designing gender-inclusive online courses that focus on inclusive communication and representation, creating supportive learning environments, and implementing high-quality, bias-aware educational practices. Aiming to foster greater participation and success for women in computer science.

Understanding intergroup violence justification: the role of ethnicity and perceived threat in Israeli society.

Research has shown that perceived realistic and symbolic threats are linked with negative attitudes and prejudice toward out-group members. Additionally, levels of perceived group threat regarding out-groups can affect intergroup violence justification. Based on the Integrated Threat Theory (ITT), the current study aimed to expand existing knowledge by examining a conceptual model in which perceived threat mediates the relationship between ethnicity and intergroup violence justification among Jews and Arabs in Israel. The study involved 324 Israeli-Jewish and 325 Israeli-Arabs, who answered questions regarding perceived out-group threat and intergroup violence justification. Findings revealed that (a) Jews were more likely to justify intergroup violence than Arabs, and (b) perceived realistic threat mediates the relationship between ethnic affiliation and intergroup violence justification only among Jews. These results underscore the importance of understanding intergroup conflicts in the field of criminology.

Diverging Ethnic Hierarchies? Cultural Distance, Right-Wing Authoritarianism, and Social Distance Perceptions in the Netherlands

Abstract The existence of hierarchies of ethnic preferences in society is well-documented. However, there is little research about how such ethnic hierarchies can be explained. Improving upon previous studies, we investigated whether individuals’ cultural distance toward ethnic outgroups and their level of right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) contribute to differences in their perception of social distance toward these groups. Our study is based on a survey in the Netherlands (N = 1249) and provides robust evidence for an ethnic hierarchy in the majority group’s perception of social distance toward 36 ethnic groups. However, this hierarchy is not universal. For more right-wing authoritarian individuals, the ethnic hierarchy is particularly steep, meaning they discriminate more between outgroups. By contrast, less right-wing authoritarian individuals differentiate little between outgroups. Furthermore, the relationship between RWA and social distance is moderated by cultural distance. We interpret this finding with symbolic threat theory, according to which greater cultural distance “activates” authoritarian attitudes, which affect the perception of social distance to varying degrees. Our results contribute to understanding the ethnic hierarchy in social distance perceptions by showing that it is determined by characteristics of the perceiving individual (RWA) and of the perceived group (cultural distance) as well as by their interaction.

Profiling as a Service Failure

Profiling occurs when negative stereotype assumptions based on personal characteristics (e.g., gender, age, race, or sexual orientation, among others) are applied to individuals, resulting in discrimination. Using a mixed-methods approach, this work explores how customers experience or anticipate profiling in a service setting, which constitutes a special type of service failure. Using a critical incident technique, study 1 establishes that customers feel stereotyped in retail service settings and that these profiling experiences constitute service failures that generate various emotions and coping behaviors, which are exacerbated when customers anticipate profiling will occur. Study 2 uses in-depth interviews to (1) advance a process framework for profiling as a service failure (PaSF), including pre-and post-coping behaviors as well as related emotions and proposed recovery solutions, (2) further develop and probe a typology of PaSF, and (3) develop characterizations of customer approach styles and responses to profiling. Finally, study 3 empirically tests our framework and appropriate service recovery strategies. Utilizing a stereotype threat theory lens, we broaden our understanding of and contribute to the literature on service failure and recovery, profiling, discrimination, and customer emotions, attributions, and vulnerability. Along with theoretical and managerial implications, we provide an extensive future research agenda to serve as a catalyst for further exploration.

Immigration, economic hardship and populism in 2018 electoral outcome in Italy. Was Group Threat Theory right?

According to Group Threat Theory, when the relative size of the immigrant population increases compared to natives, immigrants are increasingly perceived as a menace. This paper argues that right-wing populist parties have effectively exploited threat mechanisms to achieve considerable success in the 2018 Italian National Electoral Competition. The study uses a dataset at the electoral district level obtained by combining data from the Ministry of Interior data and the Italian National Institute of Statistics. In particular, the incidence of foreigners in the total population and socio-economic indicators are examined in relation to the 2018 electoral outcome of right-wing populist parties. We use spatial autoregressive models to account for spatial dependencies and spatial heterogeneity in the data. We find that the higher the share of foreigners and the lower the employment rate, the greater the electoral preference for the platform proposed by right-wing populist parties.

Network analysis of the relationship between error orientation, self-efficacy, and innovative behavior in nurses

Nurses’ innovative behavior is essential in the evolving healthcare landscape. This study, guided by the theory of challenge and threat, aims to explore the relationships between nurses’ error orientation, self-efficacy, and innovative behavior through network analysis. A cross-sectional study design was utilized, involving 706 participants from 23 hospitals across six provinces and one municipality directly under the jurisdiction of the central government in China. Participants completed an error orientation questionnaire, the general self-efficacy scale, and the nurse innovative behavior scale online. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS and R, with the network structure, symptom centrality, and outcome robustness evaluated through the qgraph and bootnet packages in R. In the network structure encompassing error orientation, self-efficacy, and innovative behavior, self-efficacy demonstrated the strongest closeness and betweenness centrality, followed by innovative behavior and error orientation. Among these variables, self-efficacy was most closely associated with innovative behavior. Within the dimensions of error orientation, the strongest connection with self-efficacy was found in the aspect of thinking about errors, followed by error communication, error competence, learning from errors, and error risk taking. This network analysis identified self-efficacy as the most influential factor in promoting nurses’ innovative behavior. The findings suggest that clinical educators and hospital managers should focus on enhancing nurses’ self-efficacy to foster their innovative behavior and effectively manage error orientation.

Exploring conflict factors between indigenous residents and migrant entrepreneurs targeting tourists in Jeju island: An integrated threat theory perspective

Exploring conflict factors between indigenous residents and migrant entrepreneurs targeting tourists in Jeju island: An integrated threat theory perspective

Colliding identities? The role of multiple identities among historically underrepresented students pursuing scientific research careers

ABSTRACT Motivated by Identity Integration and Threat theories, this preregistered study examined associations between scientist and ethnic identities and future scientific research career intentions among African American and Hispanic STEM undergraduates (N = 1,247). Scientist identity was positively correlated with junior-year ethnic identity and predicted senior-year scientific research career intentions. Neither scientist nor ethnic identities predicted senior-year self-esteem (which may influence science career decisions). However, minority science training program (MSTP) enrollment influenced the relationship between scientist identity and self-esteem, and between ethnic identity (belongingness) and scientific research career intentions. Neither ethnicity nor gender were moderators. The results indicate that different identities can relate to one another and uniquely influence scientific research career decisions among African American and Hispanic students, especially among MSTP enrollees.