Third-grade Boys Research Articles

Comparison of intellectual performance of Chicano and Anglo third-grade boys on the Raven's coloured progressive matrices

Comparison of intellectual performance of Chicano and Anglo third-grade boys on the Raven's coloured progressive matrices

Cognitive self-instructional training approach for reducing disruptive behavior of young children.

The influence of cognitive self-instructional training on the impulsive-aggressive behavior of 16 third-grade boys was examined. Children were equated by ranks on the frequency of their aggressive and motor behavior in the classroom and randomly assigned to the cognitive self-instruction or an attention-control group. The instruction condition employed a training procedure which required the child to talk to himself, initially overtly and then covertly, to increase self-control. Posttreatment classroom observations and teachers' ratings showed that the instruction group exhibited fewer deviant behaviors compared to controls although the differences were non-significant. Daring a staged problematic situation the instruction condition showed somewhat fewer deviant responses than controls and the number of prosocial responses differed only slightly. However, there was a significant difference between groups in the frequency of waiting and verbal aggressive behaviors. Results suggest that the instruction group may have used covert speech for controlling deviant responses to frustration rather than generating prosocial approach behavior.

Prediction of School Failure From Third-Grade Data

Background characteristics, school performance, and achievement test data were analyzed for 788 third-grade boys and 774 third-grade girls who were known later to have become high school dropouts or graduates. As early as the third grade, dropouts differed significantly from graduates in age, IQ level, marks received in course work, parent's occupational and educational level, family size, marital status of parents, and tested reading, arithmetic, and language skill achievement. A combination of predictors produced a multiple correlation with dropout or graduation of .51 for boys and .49 for girls. A discriminant function yielded an overall correct classification of dropouts and graduates of 75%. Although prediction was less accurate for dropouts than for graduates, 6 or 7 of every 10 later school failures were correctly classified by characteristics exhibited in the third grade.

Developmental changes in memory: The effects of processing time and rehearsal instructions

An overt rehearsal procedure was used to investigate the relationship between children's rehearsal strategies and free recall performance. Previous work has shown that developmental differences in rehearsal content, rather than rehearsal frequency, affect recall performance. This experiment investigated the effects of increased processing time and rehearsal training upon recall. Third-grade girls (age 8) were able to use additional processing time to increase the activity of their rehearsal, and they showed corresponding improvement in recall. In contrast, third-grade boys (age 8) and sixth-grade boys and girls (age 12) did not take advantage of a slower presentation rate to rehearse more actively, and their recall did not change. Further, even without additional processing time, both the third-grade boys and girls were able to use an instructed active rehearsal strategy to facilitate their recall. The direct manipulation of rehearsal activity and the resulting improvement in recall provide experimental support for the proposed relationship between rehearsal content and recall from long-term memory store.

Development and standardization of instruments measuring four aspects of sex-roles in primary grade children.

Two instruments were developed and standardized on first-, second-, and third-grade boys and girls. The Toy Preference Test (TPT) measures sex-role preference, and/or Stereotypic Sex-Role Concepts of masculinity (SRCm) and femininity (SRCf), depending upon the instructions used for administration. The Rating Scale for Children (RSC) taps sex-role adoption. Subjects were at least third generation U.S. citizens from intact middle-class, Caucasian families. Mean scores for boys and girls were compared and retest reliability coefficients calculated by grade level. The RSC was highly reliable and differentiated sex-role adoption at all grade levels. Similarly, the TPT differentiated the sexes regarding sex-role preference at all grade levels but was reliable for only one sex at each grade level. Boys and girls did not significantly differ in stereotypic sex-role concepts on either the SRCm or SRCf. Reliability coefficients were significant except for the third-grade girls on SRCm, and second-grade boys on SRCf. Patterns of intertest correlations were computed and discussed.

Effect of spatial titration on task performance

A reinforcement schedule and spatial titration method were used to determine task-reinforcement area separation most preferred and effective in two third-grade boys. Errors in task performance decreased task-reinforcement area separation, while correct responses in task performance increased task-reinforcement area separation. Zero task-reinforcement area separation was most preferred and effective in producing high task performance.

Differential reinforcement of low rates performance by impulsive and reflective children

Third-grade boys classified as either cognitively impulsive or reflective were reinforced for key pressing according to a DRL (differential reinforcement of low rates) 6-sec schedule of reinforcement. Half of each group received instructions about the behavioral requirements for obtaining reinforcements. Prior to DRL training, impulsive Ss showed a low probability of key press responding at long interresponse time (IRT) intervals while reflective Ss exhibited an equal probability of terminating either short or long IRTs. During training and in the absence of instructions, impulsives exhibited a less precise temporal discrimination, characterized by a greater predominance of response bursts (0–2 sec IRTs) following reinforcements, than reflective Ss. While impulsive and reflective Ss displayed similar frequencies of collateral behavior between successively reinforced responses, impulsives engaged in the reinforced response more frequently and tended ( p < .08) to obtain fewer reinforcements. Instructions served to enhance the DRL performance.

The Influence of Prior Contact between Child Subjects and Adult Experimenters on Subsequent Child Performance

Abstract This study examined the influence of positive prior contact between a child and an adult on subsequent child performance. Second- and third-grade boys were randomly assigned to nine treatment conditions, three conditions of prior contact, each with three reward conditions. Every child was asked to complete two tasks which differed in terms of difficulty. It was found that prior contact alone is not a significant determinant of responding, but rather interacts with type of reward and type of task to influence child performance. In the no reward condition, prior contact resulted in increased levels of responding. Prior contact interacted significantly with the type of task used. It had a facilitating influence on the “difficult task” and an equivocal effect on the “simple task.” This interaction suggested a dual mechanism underlying its effect. This dual mechanism may be based on the incentive value of prior contact and its capacity for the reduction of anxiety.

Patterns of culturally defined sex-role preference and parental imitation.

Summary The theory that males tend to identify with a culturally defined, masculine role and that females tend to imitate their mothers was assessed by administering the It Scale (culturally defined role preference) and the Imitation Schedule (parental imitation) to 36 white, middle-class, third-grade boys and girls. Boys' masculine role preference was higher than the girls' feminine preference (t = 4.62, p .05). Boys' masculine preference was higher than their father imitation (t = 1.85, p < .05), and the girls had higher mother imitation than feminine preference (t = 1.85, p < .05). The interpretations were complicated by the fact that the girls' preference was in the masculine range. The results suggested that boys identify with a culturally defined, masculine role, that girls show a similar tendency, and that neither sex imitates the same-sexed parent consistently.

Evaluating a Tutoring Program

Although tutoring is becoming increasingly popular, its value for both tutor and pupil as an instructional tool is difficult to assess objectively. The difficulty lies in the fact that randomly selected groups are usually not plausible because the treatment is given to those most in need. In this study, twelve underachieving seventh-grade boys were used to tutor twelve underachieving third-grade boys using an oral-language approach to improve the reading of both the tutor and pupil. The relative change patterns of the Ss were compared to those of their classmates. The use of a t test showed that the pupils’ improvement was significant at the .01 level. However, in the case of the tutors, a t test indicated no significant improvement. Yet the use of Campbell’s Regression Discontinuity Analysis supplied evidence to show that the tutors did indeed significantly improve at the .05 level. The implication is that Campbell’s Design can be a useful technique for investigators.

THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT ON THE DISCRIMINATION LEARNING OF NORMAL AND LOW-ACHIEVING MIDDLE-CLASS BOYS

BLAIR, JOHN RAYMOND. The Effects of Differential Reinforcement on the Discrimination Learning of Normal and Low-achieving Middle-Class Boys. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1972, 43, 251-255. Normal and low-achieving thirdgrade middle-class boys were tested on a size discrimination learning task and positively reinforced by tangible, person, and performance reinforcement. Results indicated that the normal achievers learned more effectively under person and performance reinforcement than under tangible reinforcement, whereas the reverse was true for low achievers.

Father availability and academic performance among third-grade boys.

Father availability and academic performance among third-grade boys.

Response enhancement in children as a function of blocking at different distances from start and goal

Fourteen second- and third-grade boys played a game in which they attempted to fill a tube to various levels with marbles. E blocked their progress at numerous points in an attempt to assess the contributions of distance from the start, distance from the goal, and total game length on S's response of hitting a dowel following blocking. Results suggested that distance from the start is a more potent variable affecting response strength following blocking than either distance from the goal or total game length.

Physical Characteristic, Perceptual-Motor, and Intelligence Differences between Third- and Sixth-Grade Children

Abstract The following measures were recorded for third- and sixth-grade children: height; weight; grip strength of the dominant and nondominant hands; elbow flexion and elbow extension strength; hip flexion and hip extension strength; dynamic balance; ball-throwing accuracy; speed of hand-arm movement; eye-hand coordination; stimulus discrimination and hand speed; perceptual ability; academic achievement; and intelligence. It was concluded that sixth-grade boys had, in general, the most favorable recorded measures, followed by sixth-grade girls, third-grade boys, and third-grade girls, these differences usually being significant.

AGE AND SEX DIFFERENCES IN PAYOFF DEMANDS DURING TETRAD GEAME NEGOTIATIONS

This study was designed to investigate developmental changes in demand for payof in boys and girls. Within each grade-sex category, 84 third-grade boys, 64 fourth-grade boys, 100 third-grade girls, and 68 fourth-grade girls were randomly assigned to 4-person groups (tetrads). Each tetrad played 8 rounds of a negotiable, essential game defined by the power pattern 1-2-2-4. Results indicated consistently higher payoff demands when players held the high power weight 4, although there was wide variability among individuals at each weight level. Distribution of demands at power weight 4 suggests a progression away from accommodative behavior with third- and fourth-grade girls most accommodative. Third-grade boys were less accommodative, and fourth-grade boys were the least accommodative group. Possible explanations for these differences in payoff demand are discussed in terms of rule codification, cultural norms, evaluation of self-worth, and the concept of fairness.

THE DELAY-RETENTION EFFECT WITH AUDITORY PRESENTATIONS

The effects of reinforcement delay on children's learning and retention of verbal material presented auditorily were investigated in 2 experiments. In Experiment I, 48 third-grade boys learned a list of 2-choice discriminations under immediate or delayed reinforcement and were tested for retention 1 day or 7 days later. Experiment II digered from Experiment I in that a paired-associate task was used. In Experiment I, delay had no effect on acquisition but did result in better retention of the material. In Experiment II, delay did not affect either acquisition or retention.

Group play therapy and tangible reinforcers used to modify the behavior of 8-yr-old boys

Eleven third-grade boys were randomly assigned to three play therapy groups. The boys had been referred by their teachers because of shy, withdrawn behavior. The Token Group met in a play group (4 Ss), had a therapist, and received tangible reinforcements for social approach behavior. The Verbal Group (4 Ss) was treated similarly to the Token Group except that no tangible reinforcements were used. The Control Group (3 Ss) met in a play group without a therapist present. Fourteen play sessions were held for each group. The Token Group changed more than the Verbal Group; the Verbal Group changed more than the Control Group; the Control Group showed no change on the objective measures used. The Token Group exhibited an increase in social approach behavior and a decrease in discrete, problem behavior. The Verbal Group increased slightly in social approach behavior. All groups failed to demonstrate changes in “productivity”, “anxiety” and “general psychological adjustment”.

AUDITORY AND VISUAL RHYTHM PERCEPTION AND READING ABILITY

Third-grade boys whose mean age was 8 years 9 months were given 3 perceptual tests as well as tests of intelligence and reading comprehension. 2 of the perceptual tests were found to be significant independent predictors of reading scores. The findings of this study, together with the results of related investigations, indicate that visual perceptual abilities decline in importance from third to fourth grade, while general intelligence and auditory and/or cross-modal perceptual abilities become more important in relation to individual differences in reading ability as the child moves from third to fourth grade.

Association of neutral objects with rewards: Persistence of effect upon verbal evaluation

A slot machine-like apparatus was used to pair repeatedly a geometrical form with the delivery of a penny. Thirty-eight second- and third-grade boys played the machine each day for 12 days. After being paired with reward, the geometrical form was evaluated more positively by the S s as measured by an adjective checklist. After the tweifth session the penny delivery was suspended, and the S s continued to play the machine each day for 7 more days without getting pennies. For half the S s, the F-A group, the geometrical form was removed from the slot machine for the last 7 sessions. For the other half of the S s, the F-P group, the geometrical form was left in the machine for the last 7 sessions. The S s' evaluation of the form was measured after each of the last 7 sessions by means of the same adjective checklist. It was found that the geometrical form continued to be evaluated just as positively by both groups during the last 7 sessions as it was at the end of first 12 sessions.

The study of aggression in boys with an operant device

For the laboratory measurement of aggression an apparatus was devised in which S controlled the position of a doll and could cause his doll to hit another doll. Hits by the opponent doll and knockdown of either doll could be introduced as treatment conditions. Experiment I ( N = 15) indicated moderate intrasession and intersession reliability for the response measures. In Experiment II, 48 third-grade boys were divided into three groups which received treatment conditions that varied in terms of presumed discriminative stimuli for increasing and decreasing aggressive responding. A significant over-all treatment effect was obtained with the trigger-squeeze measure ( p < 0.005). For the time-in-fight-range measure, a treatments × levels of social aggression interaction was obtained ( p < 0.05) that indicated that the effects of the experimental treatments were mediated by the prior aggressive histories of the Ss.