Enhancing the protection of shielded thermal protection systems in sample return spacecraft against MMOD impact

An area-tailored (Hf, Ta)B2-SiC coating for ultra-high thermal protection: Design and evolution of microstructure

Generalized dual-phase-lag modeling of rectal wall thermal protection in prostate laser therapy using hyaluronic acid, collagen, and balloon spacers

Lattice Boltzmann model of coupling flow, heat and mass transfer with homogeneous-heterogeneous reactions in porous composites for thermal protection applications

Global rapid thermomechanical decoupling method based on adaptive localized method of fundamental solutions and sparse embedded FBG in thermal protection materials for aerospace vehicles

In hypersonic flight, high-temperature thermochemical reactions make accurate modeling of mass-diffusion heat flux essential for reliable surface heat-flux prediction and thermal protection design. The accuracy and applicability of six approximate mass-diffusion models are systematically assessed against the classic Stefan–Maxwell formulation, which serves as the benchmark owing to its superior accuracy. The physical origins of the heat-flux deviations are further analyzed based on the intrinsic characteristics of each model. The results confirm that, for typical hypersonic cylindrical configurations, the classical binary scaling method can be effectively applied to analyze wall heat flux of varying radii. By incorporating the characteristics of the wall heat-flux distribution, a mapping relation is established that converts the heat-flux analysis from geometries of different scales to the stagnation-point heat flux of a reference configuration. Deviations from the approximate models occur not only in the case of diffusive heat flux but also indirectly in the conductive component. The magnitude of deviation generally increases with Mach number and decreases with altitude, with the primary physical source identified as the atomic oxygen diffusion flux deviation near the wall. This work provides practical criteria to select suitable diffusion models by jointly considering accuracy and computational efficiency.

Ceramization mechanism of ZrB2 - boron phenolic resin modified silicone rubber thermal protection system materials and the influence of oxygen in service environment

Localization of hypervelocity impact-induced damage in thermal protection systems of aerospace vehicle using a weighted-KNN algorithm

Deployable thermal protection systems (DTPS) for deep-space exploration require materials that integrate lightweight design, high deformability, and extreme temperature resistance. However, existing shape memory polymers (SMPs) suffer from limited thermal stability, while shape memory ceramics (SMCs) lack rapid programmability and efficient deployment capability. To overcome these limitations, a shape-memory ceramizable polymer aerogel (SMCPA) is developed capable of sequential self-adaptive thermo-responsive behavior, enabling the integration of structural deployment and thermal protection within a single material system. Upon exposure to high temperatures, SMCPA first undergoes rapid shape recovery to increase the projected area, followed by in situ ceramization at elevated temperatures to form a continuous ablation-resistant ceramic layer. The resultant SMCPA combines ultralow density (0.12 ± 0.02g cm-3), outstanding shape-memory performance (shape fixation ratio of 97.0 ± 0.5% and shape recovery ratio of 94.2 ± 0.6%), with remarkable ablation resistance (mass ablation rate of 0.012 ± 0.003g s-1 under 1.5 MW m-2 heat flux), outperforming conventional SMPs and SMCs in its ability to simultaneously provide programmable shape change and high-temperature stability. This study demonstrates that SMCPA successfully reconciles the conflict between lightweight deployable structures and high-temperature thermal protection, offering a promising material solution for next-generation DTPS in deep-space missions.

Solid-liquid phase change materials (PCMs) are capable of absorbing and releasing heat through a reversible phase change process, playing a significant role in thermal protection and energy conservation in smart buildings. However, challenges such as liquid leakage and subsequent declines in mechanical properties persist. Here, a wood-form-stable phase change composite (DWTP) is reported, created by regulating the self-assembly of multi-active site polyethylene glycol and in situ mineralization. The DWTP features a multi-scale network formed by gradient hydrogen bonding between cellulose molecules and Si─O─Si/PEG, demonstrating a high enthalpy of 94.73 Jg-1 and outstanding mechanical tensile strength of 134.42 MPa-the highest reported for any PCM to date. Additionally, this DWTP can support loads exceeding 110 times its weight without deformation and leakage when heated above its phase transition temperature. Following 50 thermal-cold cycles, the DWTP retains 97.3% of its phase change performance. Outdoor thermal management tests verify that the DWTP cabin achieves a maximum sub-ambient temperature reduction of 14.1°C in conditions with an ambient temperature of 50°C. This biomass DWTP represents a significant advancement in the design of next-generation sustainable thermal management materials.

A New IoT Smart Plug Framework Using ESP32 for Adaptive Charging and Thermal Protection

Long-endurance hypersonic vehicles face the dual challenge of withstanding extreme aerodynamic heating while meeting onboard power requirements. Integrating thermoelectric generators within thermal protection systems offers a solution by converting thermal loads into electrical power. However, accurate prediction requires resolving coupled multiphysics, where three-dimensional simulations are computationally prohibitive and existing one-dimensional models lack accuracy. This study develops a quasi-two-dimensional distributed thermal network incorporating shape-factor corrections for rapid, high-fidelity prediction. Multi-objective optimization is performed to balance specific power, thermal expansion mismatch, and thermal margin. Analysis reveals fundamental trade-offs: a maximum-power design achieves 28.1 W/kg but only a 0.8% thermal margin, whereas a balanced design delivers 24.5 W/kg with a 5.1% thermal margin and significantly reduced thermal stress. Despite geometric variations, peak conversion efficiency converges to approximately 13%. This indicates that efficiency is primarily governed by material properties, while geometric optimization effectively tunes temperature and thermal strain distributions, providing guidelines for reliable system development.

The growing demand for sustainable energy storage technologies, particularly batteries, is driving research on their safety and performance [1]. Thermal runaway (TR) events occur when exothermic reactions rapidly release heat and flammable gases, potentially leading to fires, ignitions, and explosions [2]. While many studies have focused on TR behavior at the module or system level, the need for robust tools capable of predicting and mitigating TR events at the cell level has become more pressing. Although most existing models emphasize module-scale phenomena, the present work introduces a high-fidelity numerical framework to resolve heat release, gas venting, and flame propagation processes within individual cells. Large Eddy Simulations (LES) were performed using OpenFOAM, following a configuration inspired by the experimental setup and reduced-order modeling approach proposed by Cellier (2023) [3]. The model captures reactive gas dynamics, pressure evolution, and anisotropic heat transfer during TR events while also accounting for the effects of geometric confinement on flame behavior, as emphasized in the studies by Illacanchi et al. (2023) [4] and Liberman et al. (2022) [5]. The definition of boundary conditions and thermochemical parameters draws on experimental observations by Golubkov et al. (2015) [2], particularly concerning the influence of cathode composition on gas release and ignition thresholds. Additionally, key design variables, such as vent hole size and casing thermal conductivity, were explored to evaluate their impact on containment and heat propagation. Our framework establishes a foundation for identifying critical failure modes and supports future design improvements in thermal protection systems and sensor placement. By resolving cell-level processes with greater physical detail, the model addresses limitations in conventional battery safety simulations and contributes to developing more predictive tools for next-generation batteries.

Abstract With the continuous increase in turbine inlet temperature, traditional uncooled radial-inflow turbines are becoming inadequate for operation in higher-temperature environments. This study investigates both the overall layout of internal cooling passages and the characteristics of local cooling structures for radial-inflow turbine. Four cooling schemes are evaluated from the perspectives of cooling efficiency, as well as turbine stage aerodynamic performance. To enhance the thermal protection of the wheel, a novel sunken-type disk cooling scheme is first proposed. In this design, a portion of the coolant after being used for blade cooling is redirected toward the disk region, resulting in a reduction in both disk temperature and the temperature in high-stress regions of the blade. To reduce the aerodynamic efficiency losses caused by the conventional full-coverage trailing-edge slot design, this study proposed a novel pressure-side trailing-edge slot. This approach preserves the structural integrity of the trailing edge and significantly improves the aerodynamic performance of the turbine stage. Turbine stage efficiency assessments reveal that the commonly used full-slot trailing-edge cooling design provides the least structural retention at the trailing edge, resulting in a 15.5% drop in aerodynamic turbine stage efficiency compared to the uncooled baseline. In contrast, the pressure-side trailing-edge slot cooling configuration offers a minimal aerodynamic efficiency reduction of 2.7% relative to the uncooled blade. The study also analyzes the flow and heat transfer characteristics associated with leading edge, blade tip, and trailing-edge cooling designs.

Polyimide aerogels (PAs) are ideal for applications in thermal protection, lightweight electronics, and energy devices due to their excellent mechanical properties, ultra-low density, extremely low thermal conductivity, and high thermal-oxidative stability. Conventional PA manufacturing involves a sol–gel process followed by post-processing (drying and imidization). However, PAs fabricated using this method are geometrically limited by the mold shape and are fragile, have poor sample machinability, and are prone to shrinkage and deformation. Direct ink writing (DIW) additive manufacturing (AM) overcomes these limitations of conventional manufacturing processes by extruding ink to construct architectural lattices with high dimensional fidelity, enabling the fabrication of complex, conformal, and multi-scale structures. DIW AM can produce PA components that are thermally and electrically stable, as well as geometric freedom, thus supporting high-precision and functional hierarchical design. This review provides the first overview of DIW AM of PAs. By summarizing printable ink formulations, printing parameters, drying routes and thermal/chemical imidization processes, as well as applications of printed samples, it comprehensively describes the current state of the art in DIW additive manufacturing of PAs and highlights key technical bottlenecks (printability vs. porosity trade-off, economic and environmental, etc.). It also outlines possible future research directions.

Polyimide aerogels have garnered considerable attention due to their high-performance combination of a lightweight nature, low thermal conductivity, and high mechanical strength, which renders them ideal candidates for thermal insulators in aerospace. However, the inherent conflict in achieving multifunctional (dimensional stability and mechanical stiffness at high temperatures, and highly efficient thermal insulation) integration presents a great challenge. Here, we present an aerogel skeleton construction strategy based on hybridizing an Al–O network phase to create multifunctional polyimide aerogels. The resulting aerogels partially constructed by Al–O network phase exhibit an outstanding resistance to high temperatures (shrinkage of 0.56% after experiencing 200 °C for 2400 s), which is markedly superior to that of conventional polyimide aerogels. The excellent insulation capability of the aerogel is reflected in its low thermal conductivity (0.0214 W m−1 K−1) and its ability to maintain a cold-side temperature of just 59.7 °C under a 150 °C heat source. Furthermore, remarkable enhancements in mechanical properties are found at high-temperature conditions, providing evidence for the compressive stresses of 0.329 and 0.394 MPa under 3% strain at the respective temperatures of 200 and 250 °C, showing a clear trend of enhanced compressive stress with rising temperature. These advancements in high-temperature stability and mechanical properties substantially broaden the scope for their potential applications in aerospace thermal protection systems.

Film cooling is a key element of thermal protection in modern engine construction, as it minimizes the flow of heat from the gas stream to the surface of the blades. Improving the film cooling system will improve the cycle parameters of newly developed engines and, thereby, achieve high specific thrust with low specific fuel consumption. At the moment, the traditional scheme of organizing film cooling, based on the use of cylindrical perforation holes, demonstrates low cooling efficiency of the blade path surfaces. This circumstance necessitates a significant increase in cooling airflow, which negatively affects the overall efficiency of the power plant. This article presents, in the form of an analytical review, the current state of methods for improving film cooling efficiency, covering the latest advances in cooling holes design, flow optimization methods and innovative cooling configurations. As part of the review, the considered cooling methods were evaluated in terms of their effectiveness and practical feasibility. The recommendations developed on the basis of this analysis open up the possibility of creating advanced cooling systems for nozzle blades aimed at reducing air consumption while ensuring the required thermal condition.

Advanced thermal insulation materials that exhibit exceptional high-temperature stability, ultralight characteristics, and recoverable compressibility under extreme conditions are in increasing demand. Emerging ceramic fibrous aerogels are promising next-generation materials. However, traditional ceramic aerogels exhibit high thermal conductivity and inadequate thermal stability, resulting in catastrophic structural failure at temperatures above 1500°C. Herein, a novel core-shell SiC@C fibrous aerogel with a 3D interlocked lamellar structure is fabricated by optimizing centrifugal spinning parameters, followed by high-temperature sintering. This ultralight aerogel with a density of 20.5 mg cm-3 exhibits good flexibility and processability. In addition, the aerogel demonstrates remarkable stability after being treated at 2100°C for 1h in argon, or at 1600°C for 1h in air, showing unchanged 3D architectures and good compression resilience. The synergistic infrared shading effects of the carbon shell and SiC core endowed this aerogel with record-breaking thermal-insulation performance, achieving an ultralow thermal conductivity of 82.3mW(m K)-1 at 1000°C, lower than most ceramic fibrous aerogels reported to date. These exceptional thermomechanical and thermal-insulation properties make fibrous aerogels prime candidates for providing robust thermal protection under extreme conditions.

The work aimed to obtain zirconium diboride ZrB 2 and silicon carbide SiC based ultra-high temperature ceramics, which have improved properties due to the unique morphology of starting ultrafine homogeneous composite powders. Such properties make it possible to use the product as thermal protection materials of hypersonic aircraft. The novelty of the research is the use of methods that lead to relevant selection of sintering additives/dopants and obtaining a fine microstructure, as well as the combined effect of these factors. Boron carbide B 4 C, graphite powder, carbon black, and graphene structures are used as sintering additives. ZrB 2 nano powders with different stoichiometry and graphene nanostructural inclusions are produced and then their nanopowder ceramic composites with SiC are made by vacuum hot-pressing method at 1700–1750°C. The following key properties of powders and ceramics were determined: morphology, elemental and phase compositions, particle size distribution, relative density, hardness, and flexural strength and modulus.

Thermal energy consumption in selected buildings in three residential estates in a city in northeastern Poland was analysed based on recorded data from 2010 to 2021. Multifamily buildings of varying construction technology, floor area, and number of stories were examined. 47 residential buildings were analysed, some of which contained commercial premises related to services for the estate's residents. These buildings meet current thermal protection standards, have unheated basements, and the top floors are generally heated and occupied. Outside air temperature was considered based on archived meteorological data and standard climate data. Electricity and gas consumption in this city was also analysed for selected apartments occupied by one adult, two adults, and a family of four, based on actual consumption. The aim of this article is to obtain better energy consumption estimates in the event of metering device failures, as well as to better forecast energy consumption based on the size of residential buildings and the number of occupants than is possible based on building design data. The findings may be useful in estimating lump sum fees that consider actual energy consumption in the form of heat, electricity, or gas combustion, as well as in planning residential renewable energy sources. The analysis of buildings' thermal energy consumption is particularly interesting because in recent years, there have been no occurred values of calculated outside air temperatures for winter. The calculations consider real outside air temperatures based on historical meteorological measurement data.