Racial Identity Development Theory Research Articles

Looking through cinema: Representation of racial identity development in Amma Asante’s Belle movie

This research studied the concept of racial identity development of the main character in Amma Asante’s movie Belle. This research also describes the social relations between the main character’s identity development and women’s agency. The analysis is founded on the theory of racial identity development and the sociology of literature. The results showed that, in Belle movie, the main character experiences all the rounds of racial identity development which challenges her agency to make the social change she wanted. Thus, these two subtopics correlated with each other that also represented how the racial identity development and the women’s agency influence the socio-cultural life of the main character in understanding her existence among other beings.

The Whiteness pandemic behind the racism pandemic: Familial Whiteness socialization in Minneapolis following #GeorgeFloyd's murder.

Family socialization into the centuries-old culture of Whiteness-involving colorblindness, passivity, and fragility-perpetrates and perpetuates U.S. racism, reflecting an insidious Whiteness pandemic. As a poignant case study, this mixed methods study examined Whiteness socialization among White mothers (N = 392, M = 37.99 years, SD = 4.34) in Minneapolis, Minnesota in the month following the May 2020 police killing of unarmed Black resident, George Floyd. Using Helms' (1984, 2017) White racial identity development theory (WRID), content analyses of qualitative responses classified participants into lower versus higher levels of WRID, after which thematic analyses compared their Whiteness socialization beliefs/values, attitudes, practices, and emotions, and analyses of variance compared their demographics, multiculturalism, and psychological distress. There was strong convergence across qualitative and quantitative findings and results aligned with the WRID model. Racially silent participants (i.e., no mention of Floyd's murder or subsequent events on open-ended questions: 53%) had lower multiculturalism scores and lower psychological distress. Among mothers who were racially responsive (i.e., mentioned Floyd's murder or subsequent events: 47%), those with more advanced WRID (17%) had higher multiculturalism scores; lower ethnic group protectiveness scores; a more effective coping style featuring empathy, moral outrage, and hope; more color- and power-conscious socialization beliefs/values; and more purposeful racial socialization practices than their less advanced peers (30%). Collectively, color-evasion and power-evasion-pathogens of the Whiteness pandemic-are inexorably transmitted within families, with White parents serving as carriers to their children unless they take active preventive measures rooted in antiracism and equity-promotion. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

On Pan-Africanism, Feminism, and Psychotherapy: The Perspectives of Three Black Scholar-Practitioners from the U.S., Uganda, and St. Kitts/U.S

Three African-descended psychologists discuss the case of a psychotherapy dyad in which the first author, a U.S. national, and a Caribbean student who had immigrated to the U.S. served respectively as therapist and client. We discuss the relevance of Helms’ racial identity development theory to the cultivation of psychological health among African-descended women, proposing that this form of health is intimately tied to our association with other African-descended people. With particular focus on the client’s disclosures about certain groups of Black people in stereotypical ways, what we term “othering by the other,” we offer a conceptualization that knits together issues of personal vulnerability, the reproduction of structural violence, and racial identity development. We conclude by presenting our views on the process and outcome of the therapeutic case and the significance of the theory to addressing the violence that continues to disrupt the lives of Black men and women around the world.

The ‘I’ in Identity: A White Future Teacher Confronts Race in an Urban School

ABSTRACTA central issue teacher education programmes face is adequately preparing a majority White teacher population to address issues of race and diversity while meeting the varying academic needs of racially/ethnically diverse students. In examining the preparation of future educators, teacher education research confirms the importance of racial identity development; however, literature often omits the methods and strategies used to build racial consciousness and racial identities among preservice teachers. Considering this gap, this case study explores the identity development of a White future teacher participating in an educational initiative for underserved students of Colour. Through the lenses of teacher identity development and racial identity development theory, we found that in studying interviews and journal reflections our future educator showed increased racial awareness, influencing her pedagogical interactions with her Black students.

“Let's try and grapple all of this”: A snapshot of racial identity development and racial pedagogical decision making in an elective social studies course

This case study chronicles the pedagogical decision making of one high school teacher, Mr. Diego de la Vega, a pseudonym, as he teaches about race and racism in his elective social studies class, Race, Gender, and Ethnicity. De la Vega draws upon his own racial biography and experiences with race/ism to engage with high school students around racialized content. A conceptual framework grounded in racial identity development theory is used. This snapshot of racial pedagogical decision making, or RPDM, features a discussion of implications for social studies pedagogy to promote racial identity development in the classroom.

Stepping In: My Experience of Embodied Power Through the Relational-Cultural Framework

This qualitative embodied artistic inquiry self-study explored how I used my embodied power in an ethical and intentional way as a dance/movement therapist and illustrated how I experienced my embodied power as informed by relational-cultural theory and racial identity development theory. This led to an exploration of my racial identity as a White, second-year dance/movement therapy and counseling graduate student, who also identifies with other dominate cultural groups. Data were collected through five authentic movement sessions with a trained authentic movement practitioner. Data analysis took the form of creative synthesis through embodied writing passages following each authentic movement session. Results included a journey of self-compassion through a growing movement repertoire, which developed into three themes: self-acceptance, ownership of the past, and choice. Implications demonstrated the importance of therapists exploring theoretical frameworks that align with or challenge one’s worldview, and continuously engaging in introspective exploration of one’s racial identity.

Teaching the psychosocial subject: white students and racial privilege

This inquiry poses the question: How can white college students be induced or incited into recognizing themselves as racially marked and privileged people? The author examines white resistance to racial self-understanding by analyzing the relation between white racial identity development theory, appeals to racial discourses and themes, and the psychic need to defend against perceived threats to identity. By situating an analysis of these relations within the current crisis of whiteness, the author illustrates the psychosocial dynamics of white racial identity development. The aim of the study is to develop a conceptual approach that can inform the thought and practice of antiracist educators who seek to develop effective instructional strategies for teaching white students about racial privilege.

Using Group Consciousness Theories to Understand Political Activism: Case Studies of Barack Obama, Hillary Clinton, and Ingo Hasselbach

I describe and integrate several theories of group consciousness and collective action, along with 3 case studies of political activists. I have 2 goals: (1) to use the theories to help us understand something puzzling about each life and (2) to use the cases to complicate and expand the theories. Barack Obama's case raises the question of how someone with a politicized Black identity evolved into a politician working for all oppressed people and complicates racial identity development theory. Hillary Clinton's case raises the question of how a middle-class White girl raised in a conservative family became a prominent Democratic Party politician and complicates group consciousness theories by demonstrating the importance of generation and personality. Ingo Hasselbach's (a former German neo-Nazi leader) case illustrates relative deprivation theory and raises the question of whether theories developed to explain subordinate group consciousness can be applied to movements of dominant group consciousness.

Celebration and Separation: A Troublesome Approach to Multicultural Education

Middle school classrooms can be fertile ground for positively impacting students' cultural and racial assumptions and understanding, given an effective multicultural curriculum and school structure. This article presents a narrative of the author's contrasting experiences teaching a text with racial themes. Applicable literature provides a framework for explaining the students' differing levels of receptivity towards the text. Three particular areas of study provide the framework for explaining student response: a school's approach to multicultural literature; school structure, in particular, tracking; and theories of racial identity development. In addition, the author challenges adults involved in the educational system to implement truly multicultural approaches to learning, despite the potential discomfort or unpopularity of such change.

The Effects of Sexual Assault on the Identity Development of Black College Women

Colleges and universities remain settings where women are particularly at risk for experiencing all forms of unwanted sexual activity, namely, sexual assault (Cass, 2007). While there are different types of sexual assault--acquaintance rape, date rape, stranger rape, party rape, and gang rape, most rape occurs with individuals who have had some form of association or contact with the perpetrator prior to the incident of assault (Armstrong, Hamilton, Sweeney, 2006; Morway, 2006). Research indicates that there are factors influencing the risks for sexual assault among college women (Cass). Close quarters in residence halls, as well as the social interaction created from involvement in student organizations, such as Greek life, may further contribute to sexual pressure, which has been referred to as common element of college (Adams-Curtis & Forbes, 2004, p. 94). Young college-aged women may also find themselves at a greater risk for sexual assault than older or married female college students given the fact the former group is typically single, often new to the university environment and adjusting to college life (Fisher, Daigle, Cullen & Turner, 2003). It is uncertain whether women of color are more or less vulnerable than White women to experiencing sexual assault during their college years (Cass; Fisher et al.; Gross, Winslett, Roberts, & Gohm, 2006). It is clear however, that a void exists in the literature regarding sexual assault incidents suffered by Black women as a specific population (Long, Ullman, Starzynski, Long, & Mason, 2007; West & Rose, 2000). According to a longitudinal study of a mostly White survey sample by Smith, White, and Holland (2003), 88% of women were sexually assaulted at one point from early adolescence through the end of college. Most sexual assault studies focus on White women and most rape incidents are intraracial (George & Martinez, 2002; West & Rose, 2000). Consequently, the effects of sexual assault on the identity development of Black female victims in the general population, as well as those in college, are largely unknown. The compounding and devastating effects of racism, sexism, and sexual assault, which Black female rape victims encounter, are particularly damaging to their identity development. The purpose of this article is to explore the psychosocial effects of sexual assault and its impact on the identity development of Black college women. Helms' (1990) Womanist Identity Development theory and Cross' (1978) Black Racial Identity Development theory are used as the theoretical framework in contextualizing the influence of race and gender on the formation of self-identity among Black victims of sexual abuse. Theoretical Framework Cross' (1978) Black Racial Identity Development model illuminates the process by which Black women progress from a stereotypical, externally based identity to an internally based racial identity. In other words, Blacks move through a series of stages whereby they increasingly understand and positively embrace their race. The individual begins in the Pre-encounter stage, in which she does not call racist attitudes into question, but instead accepts negative social stereotypes. The initial questioning occurs during Encounter, which is the second stage. The Immersion-Emersion stage initially marks the critical reevaluation of Eurocentrism and the strong preference for anything representative of Black culture. The later part of this stage (Emersion) is not as reactionary as the first part (Immersion), yet it maintains the strong appreciation of all that Black culture entails (Cross). Once Black women enter the Internalization stage they begin to interpret the world in a broader way; they embrace, rather than idealize their racial identity (Cross). During this final stage, reaching out to the Black community is actively valued along with embracing an appreciation for Black culture in the larger society (Boisnier, 2003). …

Television Media as a Potential Negative Factor in the Racial Identity Development of African American Youth

Received and accepted February 8, 2008. Dr. Martin is a Child and Adolescent Psychiatrist at West Central Mental Health Center in Canon City, Colo. Address correspondence to Ardis C.Martin,M.D., Child and Adolescent Psychiatrist, Private Practice, 3765 Cherry Plum Dr., Colorado Springs, CO 80920; acmartin99@netzero.net (e-mail). Copyright 2008 Academic Psychiatry Racism and discrimination continue to be a pervasive problem within our society. The images seen in media, in general, and on TV, in particular, perpetuate these negative stereotypes about African Americans and impact majority society’s views of Blacks. These images also may influence minority cultures’ view of themselves and have the potential to affect the developing minds of African Americans. Negative stereotypes may be highly detrimental to African American children and adolescents as they attempt to traverse their way through the normal course of identity development. The process of adolescent identity exploration is fraught with elements of distress and continuous discovery. Adolescents have the task of trying on new roles, coming to terms with their sexuality, separation and individuation from their family, establishment of autonomy, and understanding their place in society and the world. African American youth are met with the additional challenge of discovering what it means to be black. They must also discover their racial identity. This endeavor can prove to be difficult because they find that the world around them has already defined them by the color of their skin. They are bombarded with negative images of the self—reinforced by the media, either overtly or subtly, which may ultimately have an impact on their development and their overall sense of who they are or who they can become. African American youth struggle to define what it means to be black in spite of the stereotypes which are seen around them. In this article, I explore how stereotypical images seen on TV and the promotion of racial discrimination may impact racial identity development and two theories of racial identity development and their stages. I also explore how positive images and social supports can counteract these stereotypical images and aid in a more fluid transition through the development process of racial identity to create a sense of resiliency as a protective device against the negative environment that African Americans will continue to face. Finally, I look at the importance of this knowledge within the child psychiatric community in promoting therapeutic support for AfricanAmerican patients.

Building Ego and Racial Identity: Preliminary Perspectives on Counselors‐in‐Training

Loevinger's (J. Loevinger & R. Wessler, 1976) Washington Sentence Completion Test of ego development and Black and White versions of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale (J. E. Helms & R. T. Carter, 1990; T. A. Parham & J. E. Helms, 1981) were administered to 38 graduate students at the beginning, middle, and end of their counseling program. All 3 counseling tracks were included in the research: community agency, school counseling, and student development. Preliminary perspectives are discussed as well as implications for counselor education programs and future research.

Perceptions of and Preferences for Skin Color, Black Racial Identity, and Self‐Esteem Among African Americans1

The purpose of the present study was to examine the role of skin color (i.e., lightness–darkness), as it pertains to racial identity development theory and self‐esteem among 113 African American college students of various skin colors. Findings revealed that the sample preferred skin color of a medium tone, rather than exhibiting self‐preference for either lighter or darker skin tones. There was also a significant relationship between one's perceptions of and preferences for his or her skin color and the skin tones idealized by others (e.g., opposite gender, family). Lighter skin color was positively related to higher levels of racial identity attitudes (immersion/emersion); the more satisfied darker skinned individuals were with their skin color, the lower their self‐esteem, and gender differences existed in perceptions of others’ preferences for skin color. Implications of this study for providing therapeutic clinical services and fostering the healthy psychological development of African American men, women, and children are discussed.

Conducting effective focus groups in the context of diversity: theoretical underpinnings and practical implications.

Demographic trends reveal that the socially and culturally relevant diversity of patients, caregivers, and managers in health care organizations will continue to increase. In addition, social attitudes are moving from a goal of assimilation or homogenization to one of differentiation and maintenance of subgroup identity. These shifts in demographics and social attitudes require the associated development of theory and practice guidelines for focus groups conducted in the context of diversity. Diversity has a profound impact on factors ranging from study design to the selection and training of facilitators and the analysis of results. Racial identity development theory, models of communication style differences, ethnographic studies of cultural archetypes or ethnic markers, and the author's experiences in facilitating focus groups that explore the sensitive topic of race/ethnicity provide insights for researchers and practitioners who want to ensure that focus groups conducted in the context of diversity produce valid results.

Research, writing, and racial identity: Cross‐disciplinary connections for multicultural education

This paper describes a classroom‐based research study designed to determine how students in an undergraduate multicultural education course experience difficult and emotional content about racism. Samples of students’ reflective writing were used as sources of data, and Janet Helms’ theory of racial identity development served as the framework for analysis. Findings suggest that coursework in multicultural education can influence white students’ racial identities. In addition, the experiences of one white student are highlighted as she grappled with issues of white privilege and multicultural teaching. This study illustrates how reflective writing in combination with teaching practices informed by psychological theory helped to expand students’ understanding of racism while facilitating the development of their racial identities.

Coming Out as White/Becoming White: Racial Identity Development as a Spiritual Journey

It is my intention in this paper to introduce you to racial identity development theory. Specifically, I shall describe the progressive stage theory of white racial identity development in the context of the United States. I have to say that I have always been and will always be suspicious of developmental theories. I shall use examples from my own journey to illustrate the theory, although I realize that categories are rarely neat and life is rarely so segmentable. My intention is to illustrate the inseparability of aspects of identity by focusing on race and sexuality, while also acknowledging that there is the same integrity of identity with respect to class and/or gender, and so on. At the end I shall identify some helpful questions coming out of the quite different realm of postmodern theory, and suggest where we might go from here. I focus on white racial identity development because this is my own experience as a white person, and because in the worlds of theory and practice, we who are white appear to pass as having no race at all. In fact, even if we identify our race, it is not often that we explore its psycho-sociopolitical-spiritual meaning for our lives. In 1979, Carter Heyward wrote an article in which she officially came out as a lesbian theologian and Episcopal priest. It was entitled, ’Coming Out: Journey without Maps’.’ It has been a significant article for my own coming out as a lesbian; coming into my own as a Presbyterian minister, and coming out as white

Talking about Race, Learning about Racism: The Application of Racial Identity Development Theory in the Classroom

The inclusion of race-related content in college courses often generates emotional responses in students that range from guilt and shame to anger and despair. The discomfort associated with these emotions can lead students to resist the learning process. Based on her experience teaching a course on the psychology of racism and an application of racial identity development theory, Beverly Daniel Tatum identifies three major sources of student resistance to talking about race and learning about racism, as well as some strategies for overcoming this resistance.

Meeting the Psychological Needs of Gifted Black Students: A Cultural Perspective

In the literature, one finds rich analyses of the psychological, emotional, and social needs of gifted people. The data on the specific psychological needs of gifted minority children, however, are lacking; one finds even less information on their cultural needs. This article examines the psychological and social difficulties confronting gifted Black students. Racial identity development theory is described briefly, including the significance of culture on achievement and psychological well‐being. Finally, recommendations are made for counselors who wish to work effectively with gifted Black students.

Understanding Canada: A Multidisciplinary Introduction to Canadian Studies

Decades have passed since our original theories of racial identity development were formed, bringing with them changes in our society and in our understandings of race and racism.New Perspectives on Racial Identity Development seeks to update these foundational models. The volume brings together leaders in the field to deepen, broaden, and reassess our understandings of racial identity development among Blacks, Latino/as, Asian Americans, American Indians, Whites, and multiracial people.Contributors include the authors of some of the earliest theories in the field. Bailey W. Jackson, Jean Kim, and Rita Hardiman here take stock of their original theories and offer updated versions of their models. Other theorists, such as Perry G. Horse, Charmaine L. Wijeyesinghe, Bernardo M. Ferdman, and Placida Gallegos present new paradigms and consider future issues which may come to challenge existing theories. Later chapters present examples of the ways in which these models may be applied within such contexts as conflict resolution and clinical counseling and supervisory relationships, and address their utility in understanding the experiences of other racial and ethnic groups. In addition, William E. Cross and Peony Fhagen-Smith present a revised and expanded version of nigrescence theory.