Theoretical Target Strength Research Articles

In situ broadband acoustic measurements of age-0 walleye pollock and pointhead flounder in Funka Bay, Hokkaido, Japan

Measurements of the broadband acoustic backscattering from fish should improve acoustic discrimination between species. The pulse compression processing of broadband systems can be used to measure acoustic backscattering with high range resolution and improve signal-to-noise ratio. This may increase opportunities for in situ target strength (TS) measurements, the preferred method of collecting TS data. To evaluate the availability of TS spectra for acoustic discrimination, three Simrad EK80 wideband transceivers and split-beam transducers of 70, 120, and 200 kHz were used to collect in situ frequency responses of TS from age-0 juvenile walleye pollock and pointhead flounder, a swimbladderless flat-fish, distributed in and around Funka Bay, Hokkaido, Japan. The single echoes were extracted from backscattering data, and the TS spectra of the two species were obtained. However, processing of the broadband acoustic data is under discussion. To ensure the reliability of our data, the TS spectra of standard targets were also calculated. The measured TS spectra of the standard targets were close to the theoretical TS spectra. The individual TS spectra of two species included complex frequency response; however, the mean TS spectrum was relatively stable. The different characteristics of the frequency responses observed for the two species were in good agreement with reported observations. The results available for the acoustic discrimination were similar to the multi-frequency method, which uses two or more single frequencies. The raw TS spectra should aid in not only discriminating between species but also Q3 estimating the size of the fish.

Variation of Zooplankton Mean Volume Backscattering Strength from Moored and Mobile ADCP Instruments for Diel Vertical Migration Observation

Zooplankton can be detected by using acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) instruments through acquiring the mean volume backscattering strength (MVBS) data. However, the precision of the backscattered signal measured by single ADCP measurement has a limitation in the MVBS variation of zooplankton. The objectives of this study were to analyze the MVBS and vertical velocity from ADCPs at the same time and location for zooplankton’s daily vertical migration (DVM) observation. Measurements were conducted in Lembeh Strait, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Instruments used included a moored ADCP 750 kHz and a mobile ADCP 307.2 kHz. High MVBS value was found at 11.5–16 m depths and was identified as the sound scattering layer (SSL). The DVM patterns in the SSL displayed significant differences over time and had good relationships with the diurnal cycle. Theoretical target strength (TS) from the scattering models based on a distorted-wave Born approximation (DWBA) was estimated for Oithona sp. and Paracalanus sp.; the two dominant species found in the observed area. However, ΔMVBS and ΔTS proved that the dominant zooplankton species were not the main scatterers. The strong signal in SSL was instead caused by the schools of various zooplankton species.

Acoustic Target Strength of the Endangered Chinese Sturgeon (Acipenser sinensis) by Ex Situ Measurements and Theoretical Calculations

The Chinese sturgeon, Acipenser sinensis, is a large anadromous and highly endangered protected species. The assessment of its breeding population in the Yangtze River is critically important for effective management and population preservation. Currently, hydroacoustic methods have been widely used to study the adult sturgeons in the river, whereas the acoustic target strength (TS) characteristics of the species have not been studied. In this study, the TS of Chinese sturgeon was carefully evaluated both by ex situ measurements and theoretical calculations. Six Chinese sturgeons (Body Length (BL): 74.0−92.6 cm) were measured by a 199 kHz split echosounder in a 10-m deep net cage. The computed tomography of a Chinese sturgeon (BL: 110.0 cm) was conducted and the Kirchhoff ray mode (KRM) method was used to estimate the theoretical TS. As a result, the mean ex situ TS range of the six specimens was from −26.9 to −31.4 dB, which was very close to the KRM estimation (~1 dB difference). Then, the KRM method was used to predict the TS of Chinese sturgeon as a function of BL in six frequencies commonly used in freshwater environments and to estimate the TS of a representative adult Chinese sturgeon (250 cm) as a function of frequency and tilt angle. This study can provide a good basis for future hydroacoustic studies on the critically endangered Chinese sturgeon.

Acoustic target strength (TS) of argentine anchovy (Engraulis anchoita): the nighttime scattering layer

Engraulis anchoita is a physostomous fish with a dual chambered swimbladder (sb). In situ target strength (TS) measurements on this species are only possible at night, when anchovies disperse forming a scattering layer near the sea surface. A survey data series comprising more than 50000 single target detections, recorded from 1995 to 2008, was analyzed in order to study the species specific TS at 38 kHz. A TS vs. fish total length (L) equation was obtained from the in situ measurements (TS = 31.9 log L – 82.4 dB; r2= 0.78). When the slope of the regression line was forced to 20 into the TS equation, the resulting value for the constant term (b20) was −68.6 dB. In any case, these results indicate an average difference of +3 dB (higher TS values) when compared with the general model suggested for clupeoid fish. The TS measurements obtained inside the nighttime sound scattering layer exhibited a negative trend with depth. An empirical depth dependence term for the anchovy TS equation was obtained through a three parameter least square fitting of the data [TS = 31.3 log L – 79.6 dB – 4.74 log (1 + z/10); r2 = 0.74]. Anatomical data obtained through high resolution X-Ray Computed Tomography was employed as input for a Prolate Spheroidal Model (PSM). Theoretical TS vs. tilt angle functions were obtained considering the compression of the sb at different depths and under the assumption of different contraction rates. The TS functions were then averaged over different fish tilt angle distributions and used to derive theoretical depth dependence curves of average fish TS. The implications of the adopted sb contraction rate and tilt angle distribution are discussed by comparing the modelled TS(z) curves against the empirical data.

Target strengths of two abundant mesopelagic fish species.

Mesopelagic fish of the Myctophidae and Sternoptychidae families dominate the biomass of the oceanic deep scattering layers and, therefore, have important ecological roles within these ecosystems. Interest in the commercial exploitation of these fish is growing, so the development of techniques for estimating their abundance, distribution and, ultimately, sustainable exploitation are essential. The acoustic backscattering characteristics for two size classes of Maurolicus muelleri and Benthosema glaciale are reported here based on swimbladder morphology derived from digitized soft x-ray images, and empirical (in situ) measurements of target strength (TS) derived from an acoustic survey in a Norwegian Sea. A backscattering model based on a gas-filled prolate spheroid was used to predict the theoretical TS for both species across a frequency range between 0 and 250 kHz. Sensitivity analyses of the TS model to the modeling parameters indicate that TS is rather sensitive to the viscosity, swimbladder volume ratio, and tilt, which can result in substantial changes to the TS. Theoretical TS predictions close to the resonance frequency were in good agreement (±2 dB) with mean in situ TS derived from the areas acoustically surveyed that were spatially and temporally consistent with the trawl information for both species.

Determining the target strength bambood wrasse (Pseudolabrus japonicus) using Kirchhoff-ray mode

Although ex situ target strength (TS) measurements using dual- and split-beam systems have become the primary approach of estimating fish abundance, theoretical model estimation is a powerful tool for verifying the measurements, as well as for providing values when making direct measurements is difficult. TS values for 20 samples of live bambooleaf wrasse (Pseudolabrus japonicus) whose target length (TL) ranged between 13.7 and 21.3 cm were estimated theoretically using the Kirchhoff-ray mode model, and the TS values for 18 live fish samples were additionally measured at ~0° tilt angle to the swimming aspect using a tethered method at a frequency of 120 kHz to verify the theoretical values. The digitizing intervals used to extract the fish body and swim bladder morphology in the X-ray photographs significantly affected the calculated TS patterns, but variations based on the speed of sound and density ratio values for the general range of fish flesh were relatively small (within 1 dB). Close agreement was observed between the measured and theoretical TS values, and the correlation between the average TS and body length of the fish could be calculated accurately as = 20logTL (cm) –71.6 using the theoretical method.

Tilt Angle and Theoretical Target Strength of the Japanese Sandeel, <i>Ammodytes personatus</i>, Captured on the Northern Coast of Hokkaido

Tilt Angle and Theoretical Target Strength of the Japanese Sandeel, <i>Ammodytes personatus</i>, Captured on the Northern Coast of Hokkaido

SPATIAL ESTIMATION OF EUPHAUSIID BIOMASS ALONG THE PACIFIC COAST OF EASTERN HOKKAIDO, JAPAN IN EARLY SUMMER OF 2008

This study focused on euphausiid distribution and biomass estimation over the coastal shelf of the Pacific coast of Hokkaido Japan in early summer 2008. Acoustic data were obtained in both day (6:00-18:00) and night (18:00-6:00) using a quantitative echosounder (EK60, Simrad) with two frequencies (120 and 38 kHz). Echoes of euphausiids were specified based on the ΔMVBS, calculated with seasonal theoretical target strength of Euphausia pacifica. The best-fit kriging models were used to quantitatively interpolate euphausiid distribution. The detected euphausiid biomass reached 38,278 t (> 15 gWWm-2), suggesting abundant prey for large fishes over study area. On the other hand, the distribution was spatially heterogeneous in produced GIS map, suggesting the spatially limited available prey. Observed day-night difference of estimated biomass was caused by spatial variability of diel movement of euphausiids. Acoustic dead zones and behavioral change in euphausiids may strongly influence biomass estimation in night in coastal shelf environment.

Measurements of density contrast and sound-speed contrast for target strength estimation of Neocalanus copepods (Neocalanus cristatus and Neocalanus plumchrus) in the North Pacific Ocean

The mass density and sound-speed contrasts against surrounding seawater (g and h, respectively) of Neocalanus copepods (N. cristatus and N. plumchrus) were measured in 2006 and 2007 to compute the theoretical target strength (TS). The values of g ranged from 0.997 to 1.009 in N. cristatus and from 0.995 to 1.009 in N. plumchrus. There were no correlations between prosome length (PL) and g. The values of h ranged from 1.006 to 1.021 in N. cristatus and from 1.013 to 1.025 in N. plumchrus and varied with changes in temperature. TS was estimated with the theoretical sound scattering model using the values of g and h based on the temperature, salinity, and depth of the location where the specimens were collected. Regressions of the tilt-averaged TS versus PL were obtained at 38, 120, and 200 kHz. The averaged TS of N. cristatus and N. plumchrus at 120 kHz, which is widely used as a high frequency, ranged from −110.0 to −103.1 dB and from −121.4 to −109.7 dB, respectively. There was a positive correlation between frequency and averaged TS: the higher the frequency, the higher the value of averaged TS. The TS at 120 and 38 kHz varied from 14.8 to 16.4 dB in N. cristatus and from 17.9 to 18.7 dB in N. plumchrus, respectively; that at 200 and 120 kHz varied from 2.9 to 5.5 dB in N. cristatus and from 5.3 to 6.5 dB in N. plumchrus, respectively.

Swimbladder condition and target strength of myctophid fish in the temperate zone of the Northwest Pacific

Abstract Yasuma, H., Sawada, K., Takao, Y., Miyashita, K., and Aoki, I. 2010. Swimbladder condition and target strength of myctophid fish in the temperate zone of the Northwest Pacific. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 67: 135–144. We report theoretical values of the target strength (TS) of four myctophid fish (Ceratoscopelus warmingii, Myctophum asperum, Diaphus garmani, and Diaphus chrysorhynchus) based on morphometry of the swimbladder. None of the D. chrysorhynchus had an inflated swimbladder, but the other species had both inflated and non-inflated swimbladders, depending on body size. The relationships between swimbladder and body length showed that once gas production started, the swimbladders grew faster than the rest of the body (positive allometric growth). However, M. asperum showed regression of the swimbladder after positive allometric growth, so larger specimens had non-inflated swimbladders. Based on the measurements of swimbladder and body length, the theoretical TS values at 38 and 120 kHz were calculated using existing sound-scattering models. In fish with inflated swimbladders, TS values were relatively low (less than −67 dB, reduced TScm) at both frequencies. Regression slopes on TS–body length (log) plots were >20, suggesting that their scattering cross sections were not proportional to the square of the body length. In contrast, the TS values of M. asperum decreased with growth in large fish (60–80 mm long) through swimbladder regression. Scattering cross sections of fish without swimbladders were not proportional to the square of the body length over the whole size range.

Density and sound-speed contrasts, and target strength of Japanese sandeel Ammodytes personatus

Sound-speed and density contrasts (h and g, respectively), important acoustic material properties, of Japanese sandeel Ammodytes personatus were measured to estimate theoretical target strength (TS). The measured sound-speed contrast of adult fish varied between 1.016 and 1.023 (mean 1.020), and showed temperature dependence. The measured density contrast differed significantly between juvenile and adult. The density contrast of juvenile varied between 1.017 and 1.024 (1.021), and that of adult varied between 1.026 and 1.038 (1.032). Using these results, TS at 38 and 120 kHz in the fishing season were estimated by an empirical sound scattering model. TS of an individual fish varied significantly with change of tilt angle. TS of near-dorsal aspect (TSmax) and tilt-averaged TS (TSave) differed by up to 7 dB. At both frequencies, two different TSave−length relationships (TSave = a log L + b) were obtained for adult and juvenile. The coefficients of log L of adult were close to 20, suggesting that backscattering strength was proportional to square of body length. These values were larger in juvenile (34.0 at 120 kHz, 56.5 at 38 kHz), suggesting that backscattering strength varied drastically with the cube or fifth power of body length.

A Bayesian approach to estimating target strength

Abstract Fässler, S. M. M., Brierley, A. S., and Fernandes, P. G. 2009. A Bayesian approach to estimating target strength. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66: 1197–1204. Currently, conventional models of target strength (TS) vs. fish length, based on empirical measurements, are used to estimate fish density from integrated acoustic data. These models estimate a mean TS, averaged over variables that modulate fish TS (tilt angle, physiology, and morphology); they do not include information about the uncertainty of the mean TS, which could be propagated through to estimates of fish abundance. We use Bayesian methods, together with theoretical TS models and in situ TS data, to determine the uncertainty in TS estimates of Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus). Priors for model parameters (surface swimbladder volume, tilt angle, and s.d. of the mean TS) were used to estimate posterior parameter distributions and subsequently build a probabilistic TS model. The sensitivity of herring abundance estimates to variation in the Bayesian TS model was also evaluated. The abundance of North Sea herring from the area covered by the Scottish acoustic survey component was estimated using both the conventional TS–length formula (5.34×109 fish) and the Bayesian TS model (mean = 3.17×109 fish): this difference was probably because of the particular scattering model employed and the data used in the Bayesian model. The study demonstrates the relative importance of potential bias and precision of TS estimation and how the latter can be so much less important than the former.

Target strength of Sargassum plant with vesicles containing gas

Information about the target strength (TS) of a vesicle is important to estimate the acoustic scattering of Sargassum plants. Experimental TS (TSe) of a vesicle was obtained at 70 and 200 kHz using quantitative echo sounders in a freshwater tank (10×10×15 m). The TSe of ten vesicles examined here were −56.88–51.68 dB at 70 kHz and −60.30–‐50.90 dB at 200 kHz. The TSe′s of small vesicles were 2.56−−3.70 dB higher at 70 kHz than at 200 kHz, suggesting that these small vesicles were affected by the airbladder resonance. Theoretical TS (TSt) was estimated by airbladder−scattering models to confirm this effect. The gas radii of 418 vesicles (containing the experimented ten vesicles) were measured using a soft x−ray system and applied to the theoretical models. Their radii were 0.52−−6.00 mm; calculated TSt matched with TSe. According to the theoretical model, the vesicles were not affected by the resonance when argument ka is ka>1 (where k is the wave number and a is the radius). However, the vesicles were affected by the resonance when ka<1. That fact indicates that small vesicles (a is 1.22−−2.38 mm) at 70 kHz were affected by the resonance.

Swimbladder morphology and target strength of myctophid fish of the northwestern Pacific

Swimbladder shapes of fish from 14 myctophid species captured around Japan were measured using an x‐ray method to estimate the theoretical target strength. Using those x‐ray images, the fish were classified into bladder species and nonbladder species according to the presence of the gas. Five species had no swimbladder in any body size range examined. Others contained bladder and nonbladder fishes in relation to growth. The growth of swimbladder length was not proportional to that of body length (allometric growth) in some bladder fishes. Based on morphological parameters of the body and swimbladder, the relationships between body length and target strength from 38 to 200 kHz were estimated using theoretical acoustical backscattering models. Estimated values of target strength showed greater than 10‐dB differences between bladder and nonbladder fishes, even when the fish were of equivalent size. Because of the allometric growth of the swimbladder, values of the target strength were not proportional to the square of the body length in most bladder species. In addition, larger fishes (over 60 mm) of Myctophum asperum showed regressive growth of the swimbladder (or target strength), suggesting that the use of the 20 log relationship is inappropriate for bladder species of myctophid.

Density and sound speed contrasts of the Japanese common squid Todarodes pacificus and their influence on acoustic target strength

In this study, density and sound speed contrasts were measured for the Japanese common squid Todarodes pacificus. Target strength (TS) data derived from an acoustic scattering model based on measurements of these two parameters were compared with TS values based on acoustic measurement data to determine whether the measured parameters are reasonable values for theoretical scattering model. Density contrast (g) was measured from the displacement volume and wet weight, while sound speed contrast (h) was measured from the acoustic measurements of travel time (time-of-flight method). The Kirchhoff ray mode model, which represents the squid body as a set of fluid-filled cylinders, was used to calculate theoretical TS. Mean g- and h-values of the squid were 1.029 and 1.041, respectively. Comparison with previous data showed that g was similar, whereas h was relatively high. The difference in the TS between the theoretical model using measured parameters and the acoustic measurement was within 3 dB. Thus, the measured g- and h-values are acceptable for theoretical models of squid.

Experimental and theoretical target strength of fluid filled spheres

Investigation into the scattering nature of surfaces or other physical objects often requires the use of measurement systems which cannot always be well controlled. This lack of control can be compensated for by calibrating the resulting measurements against a known target. While these targets can be any object, the goal is to use a target that has a stable scattering response and is independent of angle. The ideal shape is that of a sphere but even this can be improved with the addition of internal fluids that focus and temperature stabilize the scattering response. A scatter response model of a sphere has been developed and used to design four thin walled spheres, each with a different diameter and filled with a focusing fill fluid (Fluorolube). One pair of spheres was measured in an ocean environment while the second pair was tested in a controlled test tank from 5 to 50 kHz but using shorter continuous wave pulses. While the ocean measured spheres closely matched the model, the test tank measurements showed a marked difference from the model. Changes to the model will be explored to determine if theoretical minimums for pulse length are insufficient for targets of this density or focusing capability.

Target strength of mesopelagic lanternfishes (family Myctophidae) based on swimbladder morphology

Abstract This article reports theoretical values of target strength (TS) for mesopelagic lanternfishes based on morphological measurements of their swimbladders. Three species of lanternfishes, Diaphus theta (26.9–77.4 mm standard length (SL)), Symbolophorus californiensis (85.0–108.4 mm SL), and Notoscopelus japonicus (126.0–133.2 mm SL), were examined. After external morphological measurement of the fish body, a specialized “soft X-ray” imaging system was used to map the swimbladders and obtain their morphological parameters. The swimbladder was inflated in D. theta, uninflated in S. californiensis, and was absent in N. japonicus. For D. theta, the swimbladder length does not increase in proportion to the body length, suggesting that the contribution of the swimbladder to acoustic reflection is reduced with growth in this fish. Based on the morphological measurements, the theoretical TS of the fish at 38 kHz was calculated using the approximate deformed-cylinder model (DCM) and the general prolate-spheroid model (PSM). For all three species, the calculations showed about 3 dB difference between the TS indicated by the DCM and PSM. Given that the description of body shape is poor in PSM, the DCM results were adopted for fish without a swimbladder or an empty one. The intercept b20 in the standard formula TS = 20 log SL + b20 was −85.7 dB (DCM) for S. californiensis and −86.7 dB (DCM) for N. japonicus. On the other hand, the PSM model was adopted for D. theta since its swimbladder has too small an aspect ratio to apply the DCM. For D. theta, the relationship between SL and TS is best expressed by TS = 11.8 log SL − 63.5, which implies that its scattering cross-section is not proportional to the square of the body length.

Modeling the target strength of Meganyctiphanes norvegica

The euphausiid Meganyctiphanes norvegica is modeled as a fluidlike body having the actual shape of the head and thorax, as reconstructed from dorsal and lateral views recorded with a video camera with macrolens. The mass density has been measured for individual specimens in a density-gradient column, and the longitudinal-wave sound speed in the body, estimated from the measured sound speed through an assemblage of animals in a velocimeter. Theoretical target strength spectra are computed by the boundary element method at a number of discrete frequencies spanning the range 25 kHz to 3.2 MHz. [Support by the following is acknowledged: EU through RTD Contract No. MAS3-CT95-0031, Norwegian Research Council through Grant No. 113809/122, and Bergen Large-Scale Facility (LSF) for Marine Pelagic Food Chain Research.]

Discrimination of fish layers using the three-dimensional information obtained by a split-beam echo-sounder

This study attempts to illustrate the three-dimensional pattern of a “pelagic” and a “benthic” layer of fish using single-target information obtained using a split-beam echo-sounder. Parameters such as the nearest-neighbour distance and separation angle between the two nearest neighbours around a reference fish were used to discriminate between the two layers. The parameters estimated were found to be significantly different between the two layers. The mean nearest-neighbour distance estimated was 6.3 m and 8.8 m for the “benthic” and the “pelagic” layers, respectively, and the mean separation angle between neighbours around a reference fish was 68° and 74°, respectively. The estimated mean target strength (TS) was found to be significantly different for the two layers and conforms to the theoretical TS calculated from the diurnal species and size composition of the layers. It was concluded that illustration and discrimination between the two layers was possible using parameters related to the relative position of targets.

Acoustic Doppler evidence for a near-surface bubble layer

Acoustic reverberation data were collected with a horizontally directed pulse-to-pulse incoherent Doppler sonar operating at 75 kHz and deployed near the surface. The spectral moment estimation method was used to estimate velocity profiles. Clear evidence of interaction with the surface is presented by both the reverberation intensity and velocity signatures. However, an interesting anomaly is revealed in the joint behavior of surface velocity and surface reverberation intensity. Specifically, the surface velocity event does not coincide in range with the corresponding intensity feature. An interpretation of this behavior is offered based on the sonar beam geometry and the hypothesized presence of a thin bubble layer entrained just below the surface. Realistic computer simulations are used to provide support for this hypothesis and to estimate the backscattering coefficient of the volume reverberation produced by the bubble layer. This backscattering coefficient, combined with the theoretical target strength of a resonant bubble, leads to an estimate of bubble concentration. [Work supported by ONR.]