Theological Differences Research Articles

The Demise of the Early Church in North Africa: Teaching Lessons for the Contemporary Nigerian Church

This article explores the decline of the early Christian church in North Africa and its implications for the contemporary Nigerian church. By examining historical, sociopolitical, and theological factors that contributed to the disintegration of a once-thriving ecclesiastical community in 2nd – 7th Century, the study aims to draw meaningful lessons for present-day Nigerian Christians facing similar challenges. The research employs a historical-analytical methodology, utilizing primary texts from early church writings, contemporary scholarly work, and secondary sources to trace the transformations that led to the church's demise. The main argument posits that internal divisions, external pressures from rising imperial powers, and cultural assimilation played pivotal roles in the decline of early North African Christianity. However, key findings from the study reveal that, Christianity spread from Jerusalem to Africa especially North Africa before it later went to the Western countries. This dispels the false concept among Africans that “Christianity is a white man’s religion.” Secondly, while the early church in North Africa was confronted with internal challenges ranging from theological differences, cultural clashes to power tussles on the other hand, a combination of external factors, which includes the rise of Islam, political instability, invasions, economic hardship and state persecutions ultimately stroked the church and led to its demise. Finally, the demise of the early church in North Africa had profound implications. The loss of theological institutions, cultural richness, political power, religious freedom, economic prosperity, and social cohesion has left a lasting impact on the church in Africa. In light of these findings, the article recommends proactive strategies for the Nigerian church, including fostering unity in diversity among denominations, strengthening theological education, and emphasizing contextual faith practices. Ultimately, this study serves as both a cautionary tale and a source of hope for a vibrant Christian future in Nigeria.

Protestant Hermeneutics and the Persistence of Moral Meanings in Early Modern Natural Histories

Abstract Peter Harrison explains the disappearance of symbolic meanings of animals from seventeenth-century works in natural history through what he calls the “literalist mentality of the reformers.” By contrast, the present article argues in favor of a different understanding of the connection between hermeneutics and Protestant natural history. Martin Luther, Philipp Melanchthon, Johannes Brenz, Johannes Oecolampadius, and Jean Calvin continued to assign moral meanings to natural particulars, and moral interpretations can still be found in the writings of Protestant naturalists such as Conrad Gesner, Caspar Heldelinus, Jeremias Wilde, Thomas Penny, and Thomas Moffett. If there are differences between Protestant and Catholic interpretations of animals, then these differences derive from the reformer’s greater insistence on providing textual support for assigning symbolic meanings, their resulting greater reluctance in assigning prophetic meanings to animals, and their elimination of spiritual interpretations of animals that are in tension with central tenets of Protestant theology. These differences in hermeneutics and theology may explain some of the divergences between the symbolic interpretations of animals proposed by Protestant natural historians and their Catholic colleague, Ulisse Aldrovandi.

The Coexistence of Protestant Confessions – Alliances, Unions as an Existential Strategy

It is generally known that during the Reformation, there was no good relationship between the Protestant denominations, and rather discord and intolerance characterized the relationship between the Lutheran and Calvinist churches in particular. The same applied to the rejectionist and sometimes-persecutory attitude of the two leading Protestant doctrines towards radical tendencies. This was manifested on several levels and for different reasons. First and foremost, it was caused by theological differences, i.e. each Reformation doctrine was convinced of the sole truth of its own doctrine. These disagreements were manifested in the first joint Protestant synods and later in disputes between individual theologians, in polemical writings, but also in the denial of any unification of religions. Another important factor that influenced the bad relationship was, of course, the loss of believers. Especially the Evangelical Church, which had been established in the mid-16th century, feared that the later spreading Swiss Reformation doctrines would cause a loss of believers. However, there have been individual, local examples where different Protestant religions have been able to cooperate and ally with each other very well and profitably when mutual benefit or even existential motivation was at stake. The paper would like to outline some examples of this: the union between the Protestants and the Reformed in Zemplín County existing throughout six decades in the 17th century, the union between the Reformed Church and the Bohemian brethren concluded in 1647, and the union in the form of smooth coexistence between the Protestants and the Reformed in Košice in the first half of the 17th century. Keywords: union, Protestant denominations, 17th century, intolerance, cooperation, Hungarian Kingdom

The Filioque Controversy: Analysing Theological Differences between the Western and Eastern Churches

The Filioque is a theological issue that has caused a divide in the Christian Churches, with the Western Churches (Latin Church) and Eastern Churches having different understandings of the procession of the Holy Spirit. The Western Churches believe that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, while the Eastern Churches believe that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone. The Western Churches have a strong emphasis on the one divine nature, while the Eastern Churches have a strong focus on the monarchy of the Father. This difference in theological perspective has created complications in the theological dialogue between the two regions. Despite these differences, the two theological traditions share the same faith perspective and can bear valuable fruit in theological thinking. The Filioque debate has been a longstanding issue in the Christian Churches, and despite efforts to regain unity, the problem remains unresolved.

MUHAMMAD IBN ABDUL WAHHAB'S PERSPECTIVE ABOUT THE VERSES OF THE QUR'AN REGARDING THE SCIENCE OF THEOLOGY

Since monotheism is the foundation of this religion and from it the entire religion proceeds, it received great attention from the scholars, both early and late, so each one of them turned to what he was most inclined to and they made significant contributions, and schools in it multiplied, each trying a different approach according to what he saw fit in the place where he lived. In it, and according to the conditions and needs of reality, Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab was not an innovator among these contributions, and his interest in the science of monotheism was to liberate and purify it from all impurities and suspicions, and he did not delve into philosophical dialogues and theological differences, and in order to shed light on his approach, the importance of this came. The research is related to studying the sayings of this liberal and reformist figure and explaining the extent to which his approach in the science of monotheism relates to the science of theology. In writing this research, the researchers followed the inductive approach through the writings of Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab and the analytical method to explain his ideas and opinions regarding theology and theological schools in the science of monotheism.

Ayatollah Khomeini’s approach to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict and its longstanding ramifications

ABSTRACT This article examines the long term efforts made by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini to create revolutionary opposition to the rule of Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, while exploiting the evolving relations between Iran and Israel as a blueprint for his proclamations. Khomeini’s anti-Israel policies had both anti-Semitic and anti-Zionist components that contributed to mustering different segments of Iran’s opposition to the Shah and Israel. This intersection of the mutual animosities consolidated relations between Khomeini’s supporters and the PLO in Lebanon, despite their major theological differences. The change brought about by the Islamic Revolution led to a restructuring of identities, values, norms and policies, which affected Israel considerably and today still calls for a new framework of analysis. Currently, the Islamic regime continues to utilise the Palestinian narrative as leverage its attempts to achieve regional hegemony and maintain its leadership in the Muslim world.

Bulgakov’s sophiology and the neopatristic synthesis

AbstractIn 1922, many representatives of the Russian Intelligentsia, including many philosophers, were exiled from the young soviet state. Many left with the so-called Philosophy Steamer (Chamberlain in The philosophy steamer: Lenin and the exile of the intelligensia (2006) Atlantic Books). The exiled philosophers tried to go on with their previous professional lives in cities as Prague, Berlin and Paris. The St. Serge Orthodox Theological Institute in Paris, founded by, among others, Sergei Bulgakov (1871–1944), became the new center of Russian religious philosophy and theology in Europe. Soon, however, the community of immigrant Russian religious philosophers and theologians was divided by conflicting opinions, and fell apart in various brotherhoods and movements.An important conflict was the so-called Sophia controversy: the Brotherhood of St. Photius, which included Vladimir Lossky (1903–1958), as well as the famous spokesman of the Neopatristic Synthesis, Fr. Georges Florovsky (1893–1979), attacked the Brotherhood of St. Sophia, which included the above mentioned Bulgakov. His Sophiology, or study of Sophia, Divine Wisdom, was accused of heresy on the instigation of Florovsky and Lossky. From this Sophia controversy, the Neopatristic Synthesis emerged as the dominant school of Russian Orthodox Theology, whereas Sophiology fell practically into oblivion.This article will attempt to answer the question whether there is still room for a re-valuation of the sophiological stance in Orthodox theology through a survey of recent literature on the subject. The article will conclude the affirmative: namely, that the controversy is shown to be the result of a conflict between generations and the necessity to empower their Orthodox identity in emigration, rather than the result of intrinsic philosophical or theological differences.

Weather and climate and their human impacts and responses during the Thirty Years' War in central Europe

Abstract. The Thirty Years' War, which took place from 1618 to 1648 CE, was an armed military conflict in Europe. It resulted from the culmination of theological differences between advocates of the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches, as well as a power struggle for European political hegemony. This war brought about extensive devastation to Europe. Based on documentary evidence, this paper characterizes the climate, weather extremes, and economic and socio-political events in central Europe during that time. Natural climate forcing indicates a gradual climate deterioration during the first half of the 17th century, associated with a decrease in solar activity towards the Maunder Minimum and increased volcanic activity. The mean temperatures in central Europe from 1618 to 1648 were significantly colder than the reference period of 1961 to 1990 in winter, autumn, and annually, while precipitation and drought means did not differ significantly from the reference period. Summer temperatures, spring precipitation, and drought also exhibited significantly greater variability. As for weather extremes, particularly late winter, late spring and early autumn frosts, floods, intense rain spells, and droughts affected grain, fruit, and vine grape harvests, as well as the yields of other crops. These weather extremes contributed to various human impacts, such as food shortages (reflecting harvests and grain prices), famines, and epidemics. Ultimately, these events, along with the effects of the war, led to a decline in the population. The results obtained are discussed within the broader European context, taking into account climate, weather extremes, and socio-economic impacts.

Nathan the Wise: Dialogue without words

The ‘dramatic poem’, Nathan der Weise [Nathan the Wise], was written in 1779 by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing in Germany. The scene is set in medieval Jerusalem, where Sultan Saladin rules and where the wealthy merchant Jew, Nathan, lives with his adopted daughter Recha, who is saved from a burning house by a Christian Templar knight. It is clear from the characters that the poem has the making of a fine example of interreligious dialogue. The culmination of the interreligious encounter in the poem is the account of what is now known as the parable of the Three Rings. The principle behind the parable has theological and socio-ethical implications that may guide us in understanding how religions can and ought to engage. This contribution presents a critical reflection of the Three Rings parable to add to the current debate on interreligious relations. The text of the poem is read from a theological socio-ethical perspective. The conclusion drawn from this reflection is that theological reasons may sometimes not be enough to ensure peaceful relations between religions. It may be that religions can together address socio-ethical challenges. Such co-action may transcend theological differences and mitigate interreligious dialogue.Contribution: This contribution wants to critically discuss the dramatic poem ‘Nathan der Weise’ and determine how the Three Rings parable can contribute to current interreligious relations. The research addresses United Nations Sustainable Development Goals numbers 11 and 16, contributing to peaceful co-existence in sustainable communities.

Obituary for Zoltán Dörnyei (1960–2022): a bibliometric mapping of his publications

ABSTRACT This study aims to analyse the scientific outputs of Zoltán Dörnyei (1960–2022) using metadata extracted from his 84 publications indexed in the Scopus database. It describes and visually represents his network of collaboration in terms of institutions and countries, along with revealing the scope and topical foci of his research by identifying and elaborating on the main themes of his research interests, including (1) individual differences in SLA, (2) research methodology, (3) theology and biblical interpretation, and (4) multilingualism. This study can help language teachers, practitioners, and researchers better understand the abundance and quality of Dörnyei’s research outputs throughout his academic career.

PERSETERUAN IDEOLOGI DALAM DINAMIKA KRITIK HADIS ANTARA MUHAMMAD NASHIRUDDIN AL-ALBANI DAN ABDULLAH AL-GHUMARIY

One of the Takhrij Hadith activists who are phenomenal this century is Muhammad Nashiruddin al-Albani. However, the re-correction of the history with the narrative of the jarh that seemed impolite and against sanad, which was believed to be the ulama, was established and became the point of controversy for other hadith practitioners. There are many Muhadditsin figures who marked al-Albani regarding fiddling with Sanad again. One of them is a Moroccan hadith practitioner, Abdullah al-Ghumariy who is also known for his sauce. At first glance, the ideology and theology of al-Ghumariy and al-Albaniy, are clearly different. al-Ghumariy with his daughter and Tarekat is inversely proportional to al-Albani, a role model of Salafiy, who is aggressively voicing the error and bid'ah of Sufism. In his criticism of al-Albani, especially in Rasâ'il al-Ghumâriyyah, al-Ghumariy can be said to be more focused on the presentation of Sanad criticism carried out by al-Albaniy and there is no editor related to criticism of al-Albaniy's ideology and theology. The focus of the discussion of this paper is how a cross-opinion form correcting the hadith wrapped in ideological and theological differences between al-Albaniy and Abdullah al-Ghumariy. The method used is the comparative explanation (syarh muqaran) with a character study approach.

Salafizing Hanafiyya? Madrasa Teachers in Afghanistan, State Actors, and Salafis

This article investigates the Saudi-financed Salafi intervention in Afghanistan, focusing on its impact on the dominant Hanafi legal tradition and the rejection of Salafized madrasa curriculum reforms by Hanafi scholars. It explores the involvement of foreign actors in supporting reform-oriented Salafis to prevent radical elements from gaining political power. The study delves into theological differences between Salafis and Sufis, their interpretation of tawhid, and their incorporation of Western political concepts. Additionally, it highlights the tensions between the Hanafi legal framework and the proposed Salafi curriculum, revealing the intricate dynamics of Islamic normativity.

‘In Contemplation only’: Revisiting the Debate between the Chalcedonians and Anti‐Chalcedonians on the Reality of the Natures of Christ

AbstractAlthough a theological exchange of ideas between Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Christians flourished at the end of the twentieth century, the ecumenical achievements of these discussions have been met with notable objections and critiques by theologians. This article focuses on one key notion that was highlighted for having been left unresolved in the ecumenical discussions, namely the concept of the difference of the natures of Christ ‘in contemplation only’ (ἐν ϑεωρίᾳ μόνῃ). The essay revises the traditional Chalcedonian perspective with regard to the interpretation of difference in contemplation, which considers it to be based on the assumption of a real distinction between the natures after Incarnation. The argument shows that this view was intended to form a response to the anti‐Chalcedonian notionalist interpretation, according to which the natures are only conceptually differentiated. By reconstructing the philosophical background of some notable sixth‐century Chalcedonian theologians, along with Cyril of Alexandria as the main theological source for the anti‐Chalcedonians, the essay will suggest that they bear the influence of opposing philosophical perspectives on conceptualization. The argument will show how some of the theological differences between the Chalcedonians and Cyril follow closely opposing attitudes in ancient philosophy towards fictional entities and conceptual constructivism. The conclusion will advocate that future ecumenical dialogues should take into account the relevance of these epistemological differences.

The Law of the Gospel: Shifting Interpretations of a Temple Covenant throughout Latter-day Saint History

The Law of the Gospel: Shifting Interpretations of a Temple Covenant throughout Latter-day Saint History

Evangelical or Mainline? Doctrinal Similarity and Difference in Asian American Christianity: Sketching a Social-Practical Theory of Christian Doctrine

This article takes Asian American Christianity to be an analytically productive religion for advancing a theory of Christian doctrine. This is in large part due to the trans-Pacific character of Asian American Christians who, by virtue of their racialization, make explicit the different social circumstances—from Anglo-European Christians—as well as shared ends in which Christian doctrinal commitments operate. Asian American Christians problematize the conventional wisdom assumed in the academic and public discourses concerning Christianity in the US. One of the primary set of categories in the discourses about Christianity in the US is the theological difference between evangelical and mainline Protestants. Moreover, these theological and doctrinal categories are taken to describe and define these two social groups of Christians. By centering empirical studies of Asian American Christian faith and practice, this article claims that doctrinal similarity and doctrinal difference, such as that between evangelical and mainline Protestants, do not simply explain social group similarity or difference as assumed by conventional wisdom. Instead, these Asian American case studies point to the need for a new theory of Christian doctrine that can explain the normative significance of doctrinal similarity and difference in terms of the uses of doctrine.

Political theologies of Christian missionaries, European colonialism, and postcolonial resistance

This review supplements William Bain’s Political Theology of International Order by sketching out two historical threads that are inseparable from the histories of European thought and order that occupy the book. There are gestures toward both strands along the margins of Bain’s account, in a few observations and footnotes. They also have important implications for the place of political theological difference in this story and for the status of colonialism, hierarchy, and resistance. First, I expand on some of the book’s references to non-Christians and discuss the place of Islamic theology. Second, reflecting on Luther in relation to Muslim empires and adapting Bain’s acknowledgment of Grotius’s justifications for colonialism, I highlight the significance of hierarchy, enmity, and violence for a number of the thinkers mentioned, especially what their political theologies authorize in relation to non-Christians. These two sets of observations can help us imagine a complementary story less about international order than about the politics of proselytization and colonization. It also raises questions about the work that political theology as an analytic can do, especially when we globalize political theory and international political thought. I conclude by pondering the place of resistance in relation to imposed order and immanent order.

اتحاد امت میں دینی مدارس. سید ابو الحسن علی ندوی کی فکر کا تجزیاتی مطالعہ The Role of Dīni Madāris in the Unity of the Ummah and Syed Abu al-Hasan Ali Nadvi's Thought: An Analytical Study

In this article, it has been explained the importance, necessity and usefulness of the unity of the Ummah and its requirements in the light of the Qur'an and Sunnah of the Prophet (SAW). Similarly, the causes and the implications of the differences were recorded and their remedies were discussed in the light of the Holy Qur'an, the teachings of the Prophet and the Sayings of the Companions. The Scholars' role has been highlighted as they proposed a formula for the unity of Ummah by elaborating on the style of prophetic da'wah and a way of unity and harmony has also been mentioned. In this article, an attempt has been made to state that the Muslim Ummah can remain united in spite of their ijtihad, jurisprudential and theological differences, but it requires determination. Let the people of the ummah renounce personal aims and objectives, interests, ignorance and love of wealth and adopt the guiding principles between the Qur'an and Sunnah and join the fight for unity. If Muslims start using all their abilities against the enemies of Islam, disbelief, atheism, heresy and immorality, then they will not get a chance to get entangled in the sub-differences. Move your pen and tongue to achieve this, thanks to which the Muslim Ummah will be able to restore its greatness.

In Search of a Sustainable Economy; Will Islamic Banking Help Nepal and ‎Nepali Muslims?‎

This article attempts to shed light on the issue of "why Nepal should adopt Islamic banking." The research presented in this conceptual and theoretical work is based on a thorough review of the literature. This paper will begin with a discussion of why the current banking system needs to be updated or changed, followed by an examination of its characteristics and how it might benefit Nepal's economy. The possibility of Islamic finance functioning as a microfinance tool by involving those who do not engage in economic activity will also be explored in this study. This article also argues for the need to set aside theological differences in order to embrace Islamic financing for the upliftment of underprivileged Muslim and non-Muslim minorities. Islamic finance has several advantages that cannot be dismissed based solely on the name or the notion that it is only for Muslims. To assist underprivileged populations in escaping poverty, Nepal's economy requires a banking system that would operate for welfare rather than profit. The only means of helping those who are below the poverty line to increase their wage rate are interest-free loans and microfinance tools.

Is Kiai a Transformational Leadership Model?

This study examines the social conflicts faced by mosque and prayers room managers in the Cangkringan area of Sleman Regency, Yogyakarta Province. The social conflicts encompass a wide range of issues, from waqf land disputes to inheritance distribution and domestic household problems such as divorce to theological differences related to superstition, bid’a, and superstition. In Kapanewon (districts) Cangkringan, fewer than one hundred mosques and prayer rooms deal with such issues. To accomplish the study, this research was conducted using a qualitative design. A sociological approach was utilized to examine the roles and functions of Kiai and Islamic Boarding Schools in Kapanewon Cangkringan in general and mosque and prayer room managers in particular. The theory used is Max Weber's leadership theory. Three essential aspects of internal processes were identified in this study. First and foremost, the leadership of Kiai, the leader of the al-Qodir Islamic boarding school, exemplified a participatory transformative leadership who is not afraid of taking different perspectives to achieve common goals. Secondly, the transformative leadership at Islamic boarding school Kiai take a primary role as facilitator and problem solver for a wide range of social conflicts. As a third aspect, conflict resolution was distributed by establishing a new system with mutually agreed regulations, and it took place with the Selapanan system every Kliwon Sunday. In addition to enriching interdisciplinary intellectual treasures, this research contributes to interdisciplinary treasures both in sociology, particularly transformative leadership, and management science, specifically in organizational leadership.

A Narratological Re-examination of John Mark’s Departure from the First Missionary Journey in Light of Lukan Name-Structures

Acts 13:13 describes one of the most puzzling events of the nascent Christian Church—John Mark’s departure from Paul’s first missionary journey (Acts 13:1–14:28). Although Luke appears to offer no details on the motive for John Mark’s actions, this study argues that Luke did not remain completely silent on this issue. Through a distinctive literary strategy, Luke depicted John Mark as an evolving character, thus pointing the informed first century Christian reader to the reason for his departure at Perga. To wit, this article proposes that, because John Mark’s departure was driven by theological differences with Paul, based on his view that the Gentiles could not live sanctified lives apart from submission to certain ceremonial Second-Temple idiosyncrasies, Luke contextualized John Mark’s progression towards embracing the Gentile mission by using four variant Markan name-structures as literary emblems of his missiological evolution. In light of Paul’s pro-Gentile mission, affirmed at the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the rift between Paul and his young co-laborer, likely theological in nature, may have manifested itself upon their arrival at Paphos and subsequent voyage to Perga in Pamphylia.