Test-based Accountability Policies Research Articles

COMPARE THE SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS AND STRESS LEVEL OF PRIVATE AND GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS WORKING AT SELECTED HIGH SCHOOLS

A number of contributors to teacher stress have been identified, including personal coping strategies and available social supports, perceived self-efficacy, test-based accountability policies, and the larger school climate. The most common predictors of teacher satisfaction include student academic success in the classroom and organizational influences such as positive principal leadership styles and a positive school climate. Not surprisingly, stress and satisfaction often display inverse relationships with similar predictors. For instance, negative teacher-student relationships create stress, while positive teacher-student relationships are associated with greater job satisfaction. A quantitative non-experimental approach was used in the present study. For the present study, a Descriptive Cross-sectional Comparative Survey Research design had been adopted. This study was conducted in selected government and private Vijayapura, Karnataka high schools. The target population for the study is high school teachers working in various private and government high schools in Vijayapur District. Sample and the sample size for the present study included 200 male and female teachers who are in the age group of 25 to 60 years working at selected government and private high schools in Vijayapur District.

The Problem with Data-Driven Decision Making in Education

Data-driven decision making as an extension of test-based accountability policies for educational reform and improvement promises new insights into efficient and effective leadership. An examination of the context surrounding the implementation of this decision making model, particularly relationships of power that serve to enframe the discourse surrounding education, reveal fundamental problems with the implementation of data-driven decision making models. This paper contends that under current contexts the practice at best constitutes a form of illiteracy, and at worst may undermine the public and democratic purposes of education. It is concluded therefore that what is needed in education is not data-driven decision making, but rather principled leadership and a moral framework for the use of information by educators. This leadership should be informed by the application of a logic model for program evaluation, and a democratic discourse led by educators.

Sound and Fury Signifying Something: The Political Consequences of the Opt-Out Movement

Background and Context Grassroots activism is on the rise in American education, leading some scholars to announce the arrival of a “New Politics of Education” in which political elites and grassroots actors clash over foundational questions of policy and power. However, little research has examined just how consequential grassroots education activism might actually be in this new era. This study takes up this area of inquiry by examining the political consequences of the opt-out movement, arguably the largest and most high-profile grassroots education movement in recent history. Purpose The purpose of this study is to examine the political consequences of the opt-out movement in four New York school districts. Specifically, this study addresses the following research questions: What impact has the opt-out movement had on local education politics and policies, and do these effects vary across communities with different levels of opt-out activism? Research Design This study takes the form of a mixed methods, comparative case study analysis of the opt-out movement in four New York school districts purposefully sampled to exploit variation in district opt-out rates and racial demographics. Within each district, five sources of original data were collected, including a survey of Grade 3–8 parents, focus groups with opt-out parents and non-opt-out parents, interviews with district elites, interviews with key activists, and documentary sources. Data analysis was both quantitative (descriptive statistics) and qualitative (inductive simultaneous pattern coding). Findings Results suggest that while the opt-out movement has not yet produced many substantive changes in state or local test-based accountability policies, it has significantly increased and transformed parent engagement with education politics in the four case districts. These engagement effects were particularly pronounced in the high-opt-out districts. Conclusions and Recommendations This study concludes by offering a tempered view of the opt-out movement's impact on education policymaking while simultaneously indicating potentially significant changes in the way parents participate in education politics. In doing so, it produces implications for the study of education politics, policy, and activism more broadly. Principal among these are the importance for grassroots movements to build alliances with institutional actors in order to effect meaningful policy change, and the value of considering alternative definitions of movement “success” in future research on education politics and activism.

The game of accountability: perspectives of urban school leaders on standardized testing in Ontario and British Columbia, Canada

ABSTRACT This paper investigates how test-based, standardized accountability is impacting on urban school leaders’ everyday work in Ontario and British Columbia, Canada. This critical policy analysis draws on theories of new public management and governmentality to document the experiences of school leaders as they enact and navigate test-based accountability policies. The data for this empirical study was collected from semi-structured interviews with 18 school leaders in 4 high schools from two cities: Toronto and Vancouver. As a result of different education policy contexts in Ontario and British Columbia, findings reveal that there were both similarities and differences between the experiences of school leaders therein. In Ontario, school leaders face tremendous pressure to provide evidence of improved test scores as part of an accountability regime that is high-stakes. In both provincial contexts, the mediatization of test scores places new demands on school leaders who act as entrepreneurs, marketing and selling their schools. Ultimately, the research highlights the unintended consequences of test-based accountability systems as contributing to the marketization of education in Canada with deleterious consequences for marginalized communities and the practice of social justice leadership in schools. There is a need to identify democratic and holistic measures of accountability.

Tools of the trade: a look at educators’ use of assessment systems

ABSTRACT Test-based accountability policy in the US has resulted in increased availability and use of assessment systems to support instructional decision making. Though limited, literature to date suggests an important role for these systems as tools, mediating teacher knowledge and action. We examine system log data from NWEA’s MAP assessment to better understand how and when educators use the system, report features valued by educators, and patterns of use at the individual, school, and district levels. Findings reveal limited engagement with the system, occurring primarily around testing windows with a small subset of reports. We describe the features of those reports as well as how those features relate to use across the school year. We also find use is primarily an individualized practice, with little variability in use accounted for among schools and districts. We conclude with implications for research as well as local policy and practice.

Who expects to become a teacher? The role of educational accountability policies in international perspective

In this study, I examine between-country differences in students' expectations of becoming teachers. I use data from 365,298 students from 50 countries participating in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2015. The results reveal that high-achieving students in countries that implement test-based educational accountability policies are less likely to expect to work as teachers than students in systems that do not use such policies. This suggests that test-based accountability policies may discourage highly skilled candidates from entering the teaching profession and these policies may act as barriers to attracting high-quality teacher candidates.

Principal Leadership and Reading Specialist Role Understanding In the Era of Test-Based Accountability Policies

This study investigates how the role of the reading specialist (RS) is defined and communicated by principals, and examines to what degree a common understanding of this role exists among teachers, building administrators and reading specialists. The principal’s responsibility in defining and communicating role, and the effect these efforts have on job satisfaction and specialists’ perceived effectiveness is also studied. Eight elementary schools in the western part of New York State (USA) are studied. Based on interviews with principals and reading specialists and surveys completed by principals, reading specialists, and teachers, the following themes emerge: (a.) Principal leadership was essential in defining the RS role; (b.) A clearly defined RS role was associated with greater RS satisfaction and perceptions of effectiveness as well as greater teacher compliance; (c.) Greater teacher compliance with a school’s literacy program did not affect beliefs about the proper role of RSs; (d.) Lack of a clearly defined role in a school was associated with role conflict and role ambiguity for reading specialists; (e.) Reading specialists, even without coaching responsibilities, served as a resource to teachers, although no time was allocated in their schedule to do so; (f.) Reading specialists faced challenges due to increased accountability and assessment demands affected by policy, demographics, and accountability requirements. It is concluded that principals must assume responsibility for defining and communicating the reading specialist role within their schools to strengthen literacy programming.

Interrelations between policymakers’ intentions and school agents’ interpretation of accountability policy in Israel

The study examined the interrelations between policymakers’ intentions for test-based accountability policy, and school agents’ perceptions and actions with regard to this policy. Mixed-methods were used and encompassed 24 policymakers, 80 school principals, 168 teachers and case studies of four schools. New institutional theory, including the concept of “environmental shift” (Powell & Di Maggio, 1991) and the metaphor of “coupling” (Weick, 1976), served as the conceptual framework. Findings indicate that the interrelations between intentions, perceptions and actions are mainly tightly coupled. These are discussed by invoking three types of institutional isomorphism (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983): coercive, mimetic and normative.

Teachers interpreting data for instructional decisions: where does equity come in?

PurposeThough test-based accountability policies seek to redress educational inequities, their underlying theories of action treat inequality as a technical problem rather than a political one: data point educators toward ameliorative actions without forcing them to confront systemic inequities that contribute to achievement disparities. To highlight the problematic nature of this tension, the purpose of this paper is to identify key problems with the techno-rational logic of accountability policies and reflect on the ways in which they influence teachers’ data-use practices.Design/methodology/approachThis paper illustrates the data use practices of a workgroup of sixth-grade math educators. Their meeting represents a “best case” of commonplace practice: during a full-day professional development session, they used data from a standardized district benchmark assessment with support from an expert instructional leader. This sociolinguistic analysis examines episodes of data reasoning to understand the links between the educators’ interpretations and instructional decisions.FindingsThis paper identifies three primary issues with test-based accountability policies: reducing complex constructs to quantitative variables, valuing remediation over instructional improvement, and enacting faith in instrument validity. At the same time, possibilities for equitable instruction were foreclosed, as teachers analyzed data in ways that gave little consideration of students’ cultural identities or funds of knowledge.Social implicationsTest-based accountability policies do not compel educators to use data to address the deeper issues of equity, thereby inadvertently reinforcing biased systems and positioning students from marginalized backgrounds at an educational disadvantage.Originality/valueThis paper fulfills a need to critically examine the ways in which test-based accountability policies influence educators’ data-use practices.

Leaving the teaching profession: The role of teacher stress and educational accountability policies on turnover intent

This study examined the relationship between test-based accountability policy at the state level, teacher test stress, teacher burnout, and teacher turnover intentions, while controlling for years of teacher experience. Structural equation modeling of data from 1866 teachers across three states identified that state-specific accountability significantly predicted higher rates of test-stress, burnout, and turnover intent. Greater teacher experience was significantly related to a lower likelihood of teacher migration between schools. This study provides evidence across multiple states that test-based accountability policies may predict greater teacher turnover intent, as well as higher levels of teacher stress. Implications for future research are discussed.

The influence of test-based accountability policies on school climate and teacher stress across four states

This study examined the relationship of test-based accountability policies on teacher stress and school climate across four states in the United States. Structural equation modeling of data from 6428 teachers found that increased accountability pressure predicted increased stress in the environment, curriculum-related stress, teacher stress in general, and teacher stress specific to testing. Increased accountability pressures were associated with more negative student-to-student relationships, which were also associated with increased teacher stress. This study provides evidence across multiple states that test-based accountability policies may have a negative relationship with school climate and teacher stress. Implications for practice and research are discussed.

Argumentation in Educational Policy Disputes: Competing Visions of Quality and Equity

Current debates about test-based accountability policies revolve around questions of how to ensure that all students have access to high-quality schools and teachers. Whether and how one can meet this goal depend, in part, on the nature of the arguments that policy proponents and opponents mobilize in these debates. This article examines these arguments, focusing specifically on how policymakers and educators justify and critique prominent test-based accountability policies, the OECD's PISA, and enhanced teacher evaluation. Drawing on pragmatic sociology and our research on these policies, we show how policy proponents mobilize industrial, market, and civic arguments to define both quality and equity as the efficient production of standardized test scores. In contrast, educators more often employ civic and domestic arguments that expand the definition of educational quality, but do not engage issues of educational equity. We explore how educators can mobilize arguments and the news media to expand the definition of educational quality and equity to enrich both our vision of education and our debates about it.

The influence of test-based accountability policies on teacher stress and instructional practices: a moderated mediation model

The present study examined the use of student test performance for merit pay and teacher evaluation as predictive of both educator stress and counterproductive teaching practices, and the moderating role of perceived test value. Structural equation modelling of data from a sample of 7281 educators in a South-eastern state in the United States supported the hypothesis that educators who perceived the test as an invalid measure of teaching effectiveness were more likely to report high levels of test stress and to use counterproductive teaching practices, including fear appeals, in an attempt to motivate students for test-taking. This study provides initial evidence for the hypothesised relationships of test-based accountability policy with teacher mental health and instructional practices. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Potential Psychosocial and Instructional Consequences of the Common Core State Standards: Implications for Research and Practice

Despite the recent rollout of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), CCSS-aligned assessments, and test-based teacher evaluation systems, questions remain regarding the impact that these accountability policies will have on teachers and students. This article discusses the psychosocial and instructional consequences of test-based accountability policies and the role that school psychologists may have in supporting schools and teachers. Research on the influence of high-stakes testing and accountability practices on teacher well-being and stress is first reviewed. Then, research on the use of counterproductive instructional practices and the impact of these counterproductive instructional practices on student learning, test performance, and educational advancement is discussed. School psychologists may provide leadership, consultation, and support to assist schools and teachers in promoting student learning and addressing expected and unexpected challenges faced by the new policies and practices resulting from the CCSS and CCSS-aligned assessments.

Initial Development and Factor Structure of the Educator Test Stress Inventory

With the proliferation of test-based accountability policies, educators and students alike are under pressure to improve test performance. However, little is known regarding the stress experienced by educators in response to these policies. The purpose of this article is to describe the initial development and validation of a new measure of stress associated with high-stakes testing. Psychometric properties were examined within a sample of 8,084 educators in a southeastern state in the United States. An exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of the Educator Test Stress Inventory supported a bifactor model of teacher test stress, with one general factor of Total Teacher Stress and two narrow factors of Sources of Stress and Manifestations of Stress. This study is an important first step in establishing a reliable and valid measure of teacher stress and better understanding the impact of high-stakes testing and educational accountability policies. Implications for the assessment and intervention of teacher stress are discussed.

Identification and Validation of a Brief Test Anxiety Screening Tool

The implementation of test-based accountability policies around the world has increased the pressure placed on students to perform well on state achievement tests. Educational researchers have begun taking a closer look at the reciprocal effects of test anxiety and high-stakes testing. However, existing test anxiety assessments lack efficiency and ease of use necessary for universal screening and progress monitoring in school settings. This study investigated the psychometric properties of a brief version of the FRIEDBEN Test Anxiety Scale (B-FTAS), which has the unique strength of measuring test anxiety using a contemporary biopsychosocial model. The B-FTAS was administered to 1,463 high school students across 6 school districts 1 week before a high-stakes test. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses identified a 3-factor, brief, 12-item test anxiety assessment consistent with a biopsychosocial model including social, cognitive, and physiological factors. Results provide sufficient evidence for internal reliability and validity of this brief measure of test anxiety. Implications for future development and use of screening instruments in the assessment of high or debilitating anxiety are discussed.

Consequential Validity and the Transformation of Tests from Measurement Tools to Policy Tools

Background/Context Recent U.S. policy has brought a shift in assessment use, from measurement tools to policy levers. In particular, testing has become a core part of teacher evaluation policies in many states, with test results becoming akin to a job evaluation. Purpose To explore the notion of consequential validity in assessment use and examine the implications of using an assessment more as a policy tool than a measurement tool. Research Design This is an essay concerning how assessment measures are used in educational policy contexts. Conclusions Meaning is created by use, and the intense push for test-based accountability policies in the U.S. has fundamentally changed the nature of test use. The core meaning of tests and testing has accordingly been qualitatively changed. Attention to consequential validity counsels against use of tests to drive policy unless, and until, the results that process itself have been validated for their furtherance of recognized goals.

Evidence, Methodology, Test-Based Accountability, and Educational Policy

This exchange represents a follow-up to an article on the effects of state high school exit examinations that previously appeared in this journal ( Warren, Grodsky, & Kalogrides 2009 ). That 2009 was article featured prominently in a report by the National Research Council (NRC) that evaluated the efficacy of test-based accountability systems. Hanushek (2012 ) was highly critical of the NRC’s interpretation of the existing evidence, including Warren, Grodsky, & Kalogrides’ 2009 piece. Here, Warren and Grodsky explain why they believe that Hanushek incorrectly evaluated their original article on state high school exit examinations. Hanushek then responds.

Test‐based accountability: Potential benefits and pitfalls of science assessment with student diversity

AbstractRecent test‐based accountability policy in the U.S. has involved annually assessing all students in core subjects and holding schools accountable for adequate progress of all students by implementing sanctions when adequate progress is not met. Despite its potential benefits, basing educational policy on assessments developed for a student population of White, middle‐ and upper‐class, and native speakers of English opens the door for numerous pitfalls when the assessments are applied to minority populations including students of color, low SES, and learning English as a new language. There exists a paradox; while minority students are a primary intended beneficiary of the test‐based accountability policy, the assessments used in the policy have been shown to have many shortcomings when applied to these students. This article weighs the benefits and pitfalls that test‐based accountability brings for minority students. Resolutions to the pitfalls are discussed, and areas for future research are recommended. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 47: 6–24, 2010

Rethinking accountability in a knowledge society

Competition between schools combined with test-based accountability to hold schools accountable for predetermined knowledge standards have become a common solution in educational change efforts to improve the performance of educational systems around the world. This is happening as family and community social capital declines in most parts of developed world. Increased competition and individualism are not necessarily beneficial to creating social capital in schools and their communities. This article argues that: (1) the evidence remains controversial that test-based accountability policies improve the quality and efficiency of public education; (2) the current practice of determining educational performance by using primarily standardized knowledge tests as the main means of accountability is not a necessary condition for much needed educational improvement; and (3) there is growing evidence that increased high-stakes testing is restricting students’ conceptual learning, engaging in creative action and understanding innovation, all of which are essential elements of contemporary schooling in a knowledge society. Finland is used as an example to suggest that educational change should rather contribute to increasing networking and social capital in schools and in their communities through building trust and strengthening collective responsibilities within and between schools. This would create better prospects of worthwhile lifelong learning in and out of schools. Based on this analysis, the article concludes that education policies should be directed at promoting more intelligent forms of accountability to meet external accountability demands and to encourage cooperation rather than competition among students, teachers and schools.