Terror Management Theory Research Research Articles

Implications of the Death-Thought-Suppression-and-Rebound Assumption: Integrating the Findings of Rife et al. (2025) and Trafimow and Hughes (2012)

Researchers on terror-management theory (TMT) often obtain effects on dependent variables, such as worldview assertion, after a delay following mortality salience (contemplating death) but not immediately. As justification, TMT researchers invoked a post hoc assumption: Death thoughts are immediately suppressed following mortality salience but rebound after a delay. In contradiction, Trafimow and Hughes and Rife et al. found that death thoughts are more accessible immediately following mortality salience than after a delay. The contradiction is so problematic that ignoring it trends toward degenerative science. TMT research might exemplify a larger problem in psychology.

Terror Management: The Effects of Mortality Salience on Desire for Money Among Singaporeans

Terror management theory has been used to explain our penchant for materialism. While materialism includes both the desire for products and the desire for money, research has generally examined the former. Consequently, this article aimed to examine the effects of mortality salience on desire for money in Singapore. Study 1 found that mortality salience did not increase self-reported desire for money but increased the size of a drawn coin. Study 2 found that mortality salience did not increase the preferred selling price of a used laptop. Finally, Study 3 found that mortality salience did not increase the willingness to listen to unpleasant sounds in exchange for money. Furthermore, attitudes toward money did not moderate the effects of mortality salience on desire for money. The nonsignificant results could be due to data collection during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and the use of a Singaporean sample. Future research directions include examining the effects of the pandemic on terror management theory research and examining both the desire for products and the desire for money concurrently as dependent variables.

Cultural complex, death anxiety and individuation during times of populism: a dialogue between Jungian psychology and social psychology.

A trend towards political polarization and radicalization is observable in many countries across the world. The rise of populist movements and an increasingly heated polarized discourse in the face of mounting environmental and cultural challenges calls for a multifaceted psychological engagement with these phenomena. C.G. Jung's vision of individuation remains crucial for understanding, and possibly mitigating, developments towards radicalization and division within and between cultures. This paper considers classic and contemporary depth psychological ideas regarding individuation, shadow work and cultural complexes, and applies these ideas to current socio-political developments. To further elucidate, Jungian thought is brought into conversation with the findings of a body of literature within social psychology called Terror Management Theory (TMT) which points to unconscious death anxiety as amplifying a sense of separation and otherness, as well as judgment and conflict between individuals and groups. This paper aims to deepen the understanding of current cultural polarization phenomena as well as to collective healing and growth by synthesizing ideas from Jung and TMT research, and to rekindle the fire of individuation as a counter to the trend of polarization, alienation and conflict.

Death Concerns, Benefit-Finding, and Well-Being During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Because of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, reminders of death are particularly salient. Although much terror management theory research demonstrates that people engage in defensive tactics to manage mortality awareness, other work shows that existential concerns can motivate growth-oriented actions to improve health. The present study explored the associative link between coronavirus anxieties, fear of death, and participants' well-being. Results, using structural equation modeling, found that increased mortality concerns stemming from COVID-19 were associated with heightened benefit finding (e.g., relationship investment, gratefulness, patience) from the pandemic. Increased benefit finding, in turn, was related to higher life satisfaction, meaning in life, self-esteem, resilience, and vitality while also correlating negatively with depression and stress scores. There was no evidence for reverse mediation in that fear of mortality did not predict well-being through coronavirus worries. Overall, although many persons have experienced mental health concerns (e.g., fear, stress) as a function of the COVID-19 pandemic, our findings demonstrate positive benefits that paradoxically follow in terms of an increased appreciation of life, improved relationships, and better health.

Controversies in terror management theory research and its implications for research on the psychology of death

Controversies in terror management theory research and its implications for research on the psychology of death

Methodological weakness of the death-word-fragment task: Alternative implicit death anxiety measures

The efficacy of different implicit death anxiety measures was examined. In Study 1 (N = 133), the death-word-fragment task (DWFT), commonly used to test death-thought accessibility in terror management theory (TMT) research, did not differentiate between mortality salience (MS) and control conditions. Instead, death-related word completions were associated with word dimensions other than MS induction. Study 2 (N = 155) tested three implicit measures (lexical-decision task, dot-probe task, ambiguous pictures task), which differentiated between conditions, revealing greater sensitivity than the DWFT. As TMT research widens its scope, investigating measures to capture implicit death concerns is important.

An Atheist Perspective on Self-Esteem and Meaning Making while under Death Awareness

Abstract In accordance with Terror Management Theory research, secular beliefs can serve an important role for mitigating existential concerns by providing atheists with a method to attain personal meaning and bolster self-esteem. Although much research has suggested that religious beliefs are powerful defense mechanisms, these effects are limited or reveal more nuanced effects when attempting to explain atheists’ (non)belief structures. The possibility of nonbelief that provides meaning in the “here and now” is reinforced by the importance placed on scientific discovery, education, and social activism by many atheists. Thus, these values and ideologies can, and do, allow for empirically testable claims within a Terror Management framework. Although religious individuals can and largely do use religion as a defense strategy against existential concerns, purely secular ideologies are more effective for atheists providing evidence for a hierarchical approach and individual differences within worldview defenses. Evidence for and implications of these arguments are discussed.

The terror management effects of a disaster song

Following terror management theory (TMT), we hypothesized that listening to a disaster song could increase cultural worldview defenses in a manner similar to the mortality-stimulating essay typically used in TMT research. Participants were divided into four groups. Two of the groups received death-related themes: one wrote an essay about dying and the other group heard a song about men who died in a shipwreck. The other two groups received pain-related stimuli: one wrote an essay about dental pain and the other heard a song about a migrant worker’s painful separation from family. Dependent variables examined pro-social behavior, ranking one’s country, children, and emotions. Results showed similar effects for the mortality-stimulating essay and the disaster song on two variables: ranking one’s country in the world and the importance of having children. In addition, compared to the pain-of-separation song, the disaster song produced significantly more negative and less positive emotion ratings; the emotion ratings of the essay groups did not differ significantly. Results show that a disaster song can produce effects similar to those that have been observed for a mortality-stimulating essay. Further, the effects of disaster songs may extend to strengthening cultural worldview defenses.

Mitigating death anxiety: Identifying music’s role in terror management

Based on the ideas of social-anthropologist Ernest Becker, Terror Management Theory (TMT) explains human behavior as being motivated by conscious and unconscious mortality salience. This article examines the role of music in the denial of death and catalogues related literature in the music and social psychology fields. Categories include: TMT and art, music used as control condition in TMT research, and songs and TMT. A brief description of Becker’s theory and TMT and a discussion of the functions of music in culture precede the literature review. Analysis of the literature suggests that (a) music provides a safe window frame through which to examine death, (b) music created for community purposes may buffer death anxiety more readily than that created for individual purposes, and (c) songs prompt mortality salience and simultaneously buffer death anxiety depending on individual music preferences, cultural worldviews, and perceptions of famous others. The review further identifies limitations in TMT studies regarding music and terror management and highlights the need for additional empirical research to untangle the complexity of music’s role in mitigating death anxiety growing out of mortality salience.

Researcher Effects on Mortality Salience Research: A Meta-Analytic Moderator Analysis

A recent meta-analysis of 164 terror management theory (TMT) papers indicated that mortality salience (MS) yields substantial effects (r = .35) on worldview and self-esteem-related dependent variables (B. L. Burke, A. Martens, & E. H. Faucher, 2010). This study reanalyzed the data to explore the researcher effects of TMT. By cluster-analyzing the authorships of each study, two major TMT research teams were identified, namely, an American team (Team A) and an Israeli team (Team I). The majority of MS experiments were conducted by or related to a small number of researchers (Team A, 50.2%). The average effect size of Team A (r = .41) was significantly greater than that of other researchers (r = .30). Further analysis revealed that cultural differences found in TMT research may be due to the teams themselves, rather than to sample regions. The reasons behind these findings are proposed.

The effects of mortality salience and evidence strength on death penalty sentencing decisions

The nature of capital cases necessarily makes mortality a highly salient factor in the courtroom. Terror management theory research has previously explored mortality salience effects on behavior in a variety of contexts, including legal judgments. We sought to extend this line of research by directly examining mortality salience effects in the context of capital trials. In Study 1, mock jurors who had been specifically asked to contemplate their own mortality and exposed to trial-related death references (Dual-Focused Mortality [DFM]) were more likely to appropriately weigh evidence regarding defendant future dangerousness than participants only exposed to trial-related death references (Trial-Focused Mortality [TFM]). In Study 2, we manipulated mitigating factor strength using a different capital sentencing scenario. Consistent with the results of Study 1, DFM participants were more likely to appropriately utilize mitigating evidence than TFM participants, particularly when they had more complete comprehension of relevant legal concepts.

Destined to die but not to wage war: How existential threat can contribute to escalation or de-escalation of violent intergroup conflict.

War means threat to people's lives. Research derived from terror management theory (TMT) illustrates that the awareness of death leads people to defend cultural ingroups and their worldviews to attain a sense of symbolic immortality and thereby buffer existential anxiety. This can result in hostile effects of mortality salience (MS), such as derogation of outgroup members, prejudice, stereotyping, aggression, and racism, which, in turn, can lead to the escalation of violent intergroup conflict and, thus, the escalation of war. Yet, escalation of destructive conflict following MS is not automatic. Instead, research on TMT suggests that MS does not necessarily result in conflict and intolerance but can also foster positive tendencies, such as intergroup fairness or approval of pacifism, depending on how existential threat is perceived, whether the need for symbolic self-transcendence is satisfied, which social norms are salient, and how social situations are interpreted. In the present article, we review current TMT research with the aim of reconciling the seemingly contradictory findings of hostile and peaceful reactions to reminders of death. We present a terror management model of escalation and de-escalation of violent intergroup conflicts, which takes into account the interaction between threat salience and features of the social situation. We also discuss possible intervention strategies to override detrimental consequences of existential threat and argue that war is not the inevitable consequence of threat.

Terror Management and Attitudes Toward Immigrants

Previous terror management theory research has shown that mortality salience (MS; a death reminder) leads to the derogation of those who are perceived to be threats to or violators of one’s cultural worldview. Immigrants may be viewed as such a threat, but not necessarily to all majority group members of the culture. The studies presented here tested the hypothesis that, depending upon the nature of the participants’ worldview, MS would either increase or decrease liking of an immigrant. After being reminded of their mortality or a control topic, French and American college students evaluated an immigrant. To assess differences in worldview, participants completed a measure of right-wing authoritarianism (RWA). Consistent across two studies, MS led to more negative evaluations of an immigrant among those high in RWA, but more positive evaluations for those low in RWA. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for understanding the interplay of mortality concerns and RWA in determining attitudes toward immigrants.

Evidence that Mortality Salience Exacerbate Compulsive Behaviour

Evidence that Mortality Salience Exacerbate Compulsive Behaviour

Culture and Terror Management: What is “Culture” in Cultural Psychology and Terror Management Theory?

Cultural psychology underscores the importance of culture in understanding human psychology. More recently, Terror Management Theory (TMT) also advanced the importance of culture from a perspective that regards culture as a tool for coping with existential concerns. This paper compares these two perspectives with respect to the focus of their theoretical inquiries and the conceptualizations of culture. A brief review of relevant TMT research is provided to familiarize readers to this literature. Theoretical implications and directions for future research are presented.

Quantity and Proximity: The Terror-Managing Function of Abstract Figures

Terror Management Theory (TMT) has proven valuable for interpreting and clarifying responses to (mortality) threats. One of the key findings in TMT research is that people tend to cling more to groups, in particular their ingroup, when mortality is salient. In the present studies, we extend this insight by demonstrating that—when people are confronted with their own mortality—figures that resemble large and cohesive groups increase feelings of safety, even when these figures are “meaningless” and abstract. In Study 1, we show that when mortality is salient, people indicate that they feel safer in a (fictitious) large group and close to others, than in a smaller and/or less cohesive group. In Study 2, we add to this by showing that figures consisting of more squares close together make people feel more safe than other figures, when mortality is salient.

Go with the flow: conforming to others in the face of existential threat

Abstract In three studies we investigate the impact of mortality salience on conformity and show that people have a greater preference to conform to the opinions of others when mortality is salient. Study 1 shows that mortality salience increases the degree to which judgments of abstract drawings are influenced by the majority's opinion. Study 2 shows that mortality salience causes people to change their opinions towards societal issues, so that these fit the attitudes they think others have. Study 3 replicates the findings of the first study and additionally shows that people do not conform to the attitude of outgroup members. Our findings extend previous Terror Management Theory research and suggest that conforming to the group is a means to buffer the fear that may otherwise arise in existentially threatening situations. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Terror Mismanagement: Evidence That Mortality Salience Exacerbates Phobic and Compulsive Behaviors

Terror management theory (TMT) posits that cultural worldviews and self-esteem function to buffer humans from mortality-related anxiety. TMT research has shown that important behaviors are influenced by mortality salience (MS) even when they have no obvious connection to death. However, there has been no attempt to investigate TMT processes in anxious responding. The present research examines that question. In Study 1, compared to a control condition, MS increased anxious responding to spider-related stimuli, but only for participants who met criteria for specific phobia. In Study 2, compared to an aversive control condition, MS increased time spent washing hands, but only for those scoring high on a measure of compulsive hand washing (CHW). In Study 3, compared to a different aversive control condition, MS increased avoidance of a social interaction, but only for those scoring high on a measure of social interaction anxiety. The relevance of TMT in anxious responding is discussed.

Defensive versus Existential Religion: Is Religious Defensiveness Predictive of Worldview Defense?

Beck (2004) has recently argued that, although existential defensiveness may motivate some religious persons, existential engagement is compatible with religious belief. More specifically, Beck (2004) has argued that “defensive believers” tend to adopt theological configurations mainly aimed at producing existential solace and consolation. Consequently, one of Beck's (2004) contentions is that “defensive believers” would display in-group bias in order to preserve the integrity of their worldview. By contrast, “existential believers,” due to their existential engagement, are predicted to display less in-group bias. This article presents two empirical studies aimed at testing these characterizations. First, in Study 1 a measure of existential defensiveness, the Defensive Theology Scale, was constructed and then compared with measures of Quest religious motivation and religious pluralism. Study 2, a laboratory study, borrowed a common experimental procedure from Terror Management Theory research. Specifically, defensive and existential participants were moved through a mortality salience manipulation with subsequent ratings of in-group and out-group targets. Overall, the results of Studies 1 and 2 supported Beck's (2004) characterizations. That is, religiously defensive participants scored lower on Quest motives and displayed the tendency to see in-group targets more favorably than out-group targets. Conversely, existential participants scored higher on Quest motives and tended to see in-group and out-group targets as equally attractive or capable.

Normative Bias and Adaptive Challenges: A Relational Approach to Coalitional Psychology and a Critique of Terror Management Theory

Adherence to ingroup ideology increases after exposure to death-related stimuli, a reaction that proponents of terror management theory (TMT) explain as a psychological defense against the uniquely human existential fear of death. We argue that existential concerns are not the relevant issue; rather, such concepts can be subsumed under a larger category of adaptive challenges that prime coalitional thinking. We suggest that increases in adherence to ingroup ideology in response to adaptive challenges are manifestations of normative mental representations emanating from psychological systems designed to enhance coordination and membership in social groups. In providing an alternative to TMT, we (1) explain why the theory is inconsistent with contemporary evolutionary biology, (2) demonstrate that mortality-salience does not have the unique evocative powers ascribed to it by TMT advocates, and (3) discuss our approach to coalitional psychology, a framework consistent with modern evolutionary theory and informed by a broad understanding of cultural variation, can be employed to help account for both the corpus of results in TMT research and the growing body of findings inconsistent with TMT's predictions.