Law Number 11 of 2006 on the Governance of Aceh embodies the principle of lex specialis due to its territorial scope, while Law Number 4 of 2009 on Mineral and Coal Mining also contains a lex specialis character as it specifically regulates the mining sector. This situation raises a legal question regarding how the principles of lex specialis derogat legi generali, lex superior derogat legi inferiori, and lex posterior derogat legi priori should be interpreted and applied by the Government within the framework of Aceh as a Special Autonomous Region. This study aims to conduct an in-depth legal analysis using a progressive law approach to examine whether the principles of lex posterior or lex superior may override the principle of lex specialis as applied in Aceh’s special autonomy regime. The research employs normative legal methods with qualitative analysis. The findings indicate that the principle of lex specialis derogat legi generali as stipulated in the Law on the Governance of Aceh must take precedence due to its specific territorial applicability and special autonomous status. In resolving such normative conflicts, a clear legal framework is required, accompanied by the renewal of legal theories and principles to ensure legal certainty, prevent regulatory overlap, and promote harmony among statutory regulations.

Abstract Ecuador's 2008 Constitution advanced an ambitious substantive economic vision through Buen Vivir (Good Living), recognizing a plural economy which encompasses private, public and solidarity economy (SE) sectors. This paper aims to analyze public procurement programs in Ecuador, one of the flagship Buen Vivir policies for SE promotion. Drawing on Polanyi's distinction between formal (market‐centric) and substantive (life‐sustaining, socially embedded) conceptions of the economy, we analyze the evaluation criteria governing SE organizations’ access to public procurement. Based on qualitative research during Ecuador's SE promotion momentum (2008–2017)—including 31 interviews with government officials and SE organization members, documentary analysis and observation—we examine four criteria: installed capacity, territorial scope, associativity, and positive discrimination. Our findings reveal systematic tensions between substantive policy discourse and formal implementation practices. Evaluation criteria privilege technification, formalization and bureaucratic compliance over traditional knowledge, solidarity networks and participatory democracy, reinforcing rather than challenging market rationalities. We reveal an institutionalization paradox : policies designed to support alternative economic models inadvertently reproduce the market rationalities they seek to transcend, confining SE to subsidiary roles. Our analysis uncovers deeper epistemic and institutional barriers to realizing economic plurality through state policy and offers insights into SE institutionalization challenges globally.

The convergence of illicit economies, armed group violence, and urban crime in Colombia challenges empirical approaches that tend to reduce crime to one or a few variables. To determine patterns of criminal occurrence and their drivers, this study uses 52 crime variables for the period 2010–2024 and applies Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and fixed-effects panel models at the departmental level. The PCA reveals two orthogonal dimensions: (i) property and interpersonal violence offences (e.g., theft, fraud) and (ii) strategic criminality associated with armed groups (e.g., forced displacement, disappearance, illicit recruitment). The panel analysis confirms their divergence: the first dimension shows a linear relationship with population (elasticity = 2.85), whereas the second exhibits no significant links to demographic or economic predictors, pointing to the primacy of structural factors. The evidence challenges the use of aggregated approaches and supports the need for differentiated public policies according to the type of criminality and its territorial scope. The study provides an empirical framework that contributes to the design of security strategies tailored to territorial dynamics and to the specific nature of each dimension of crime.

The article attempts to summarise the current findings regarding the history of the Lublin Territorial Archdeaconry. Particular emphasis is placed on the scholarly debate concerning the origin and establishment of this ecclesiastical administrative unit. The study presents both the prevailing viewpoints that have shaped the discourse and alternative standpoints that challenge commonly accepted narratives, thereby highlighting the need for further research. Notably, the overlooked works of Józef Szymański seem particularly inspiring. Additionally, the article examines issues related to the territorial scope, internal administrative divisions, stages of the development of the ecclesiastical network within the Lublin Archdeaconry, as well as those who held the office of Lublin archdeacon.

Introduction. The topics of scientific and qualification works of the beginning of the 21st century reflect a multifactorial approach to the study of Russian regional history. The history of primary public education remains a relevant direction of Russian historiography. Methods and materials. The article uses historical-statistical and historical-comparative methods to analyze historical abstracts of dissertations and dissertations in which periodical press materials are classified as the main types of sources. Analysis and results. The territorial scope of the scientific and qualification works covers the entire territory of the Kazan educational district, and the chronological one is mainly the second half of the 19th to early 20th centuries. A quarter of all authors addressed a wide range of periodicals, but their dissertations demonstrate a superficial analysis of the periodical press, limiting them to listing the contents of publications. Only a fifth of the researchers addressed periodicals at the district level. Regional periodicals were used on an equal basis with central ones, but in terms of the number of newspaper and magazine titles, they were several times inferior to the latter. They used periodical press materials in four main areas of scientific research: taking into account public opinion, studying the chronology of events, preparing interdisciplinary studies, and supplementing other types of sources. An analysis of dissertations showed that the potential of the periodical press (central, regional, and local) as a comprehensive historical source on the history is underutilized. The diversity of the central and regional periodical press of the Kazan district has resource potential in modern scientific research.

This article critically examines the legal and regulatory challenges posed by artificial intelligence (AI) within the European Union’s (EU) digital economy, focusing on the recently adopted EU Ai Act (Regulation 2024/1689). While previous studies have addressed AI's ethical and theoretical dimensions, this research fills a gap by analyzing the Act’s practical application across its temporal, personal, material, and territorial scopes. The study adopts a qualitative legal methodology, integrating doctrinal interpretation, comparative analysis, and systemic review of EU and international legal instruments. Key findings reveal that the EU AI Act establishes a pioneering risk-based regulatory framework, distinguishing itself through strong safeguards for fundamental rights, transparency, and human oversight. However, critical limitations remain, including ambiguous high-risk classifications, reliance on provider self-assessment, and exemptions for national security that may undermine human rights protections. The article compares the EU approach with those of the United States and China, illustrating divergent models of AI regulation and their global implications. It argues that while the EU AI Act sets an ambitious precedent, its success depends on effective enforcement, stakeholder compliance, and international regulatory convergence. By addressing these challenges, the EU can shape a globally influential framework for ethical and responsible AI deployment. This study contributes to the evolving academic and policy debate on AI governance by offering practical insights and recommendations for future research and legal development.

The work covers current issues of the historical period from the mid-7th to the mid-10th century. The article provides a brief historical overview of the period when the Oghuz state functioned, which played a key role in the process of Islamization of Turkic tribes throughout Central Asia and in the territory of modern Kazakhstan. The work aimed to demonstrate, using sources as an example, the processes of successful unification of ethnically diverse groups of nomadic and semi-nomadic populations, with different cultural and religious traditions, into a complex political structure. The territorial scope of the study covered a significant portion of these tribes, who settled and inhabited the fertile banks of the ancient Syr Darya River, moving from an exclusively nomadic way of life to a more sedentary, agricultural and trading activity. The discussion section of the work characterizes the geopolitical landscape of the region, which radically changed in 750 AD, when Arab troops defeated the Chinese armies, occupied many strategically important cities, and established strong Islamic rule in the territory of southern Kazakhstan. The paper demonstrates that this historical event marked a crucial turning point in the region's religious and cultural development, as vast territories came under the direct influence of Islam. The discussion section addresses questions regarding the integration of major urban centres in southern Kazakhstan and Semirechye into the broader Islamic ecumene, which contributed to the formation of distinct ethnoreligious communities. These groups, mostly composed of Turkic peoples who had converted to Islam, became known as "Turkmen" – literally meaning "Turk-like" – reflecting their special status as Islamic converts who retained their Turkic ethnicity and cultural characteristics. The authors also emphasize historical processes in their discussion that point to gradual religious transformations rather than an instantaneous mass conversion to Islam. The authors analyzed sources that described the lands located to the east as “countries of war and unbelief,” emphasizing the ambiguity of religious boundaries and ongoing clashes between Islamized and non-Islamized populations. In the concluding section, the authors express the opinion that the adoption of Islam by a significant portion of the Oghuz population had significant political consequences. Their active participation in protracted wars for control of Transoxania (Mawarannahr) during the gradual disintegration of the Samanid state in the 10th century led to significant demographic shifts and a mass exodus from traditional areas of residence. The authors, summing up the results of the study, concluded that, despite the mention of Dzhankent in historical sources in later periods, archaeological research data indicate that the main urban settlement actually ceased to exist by the end of the 10th century, marking the end of an important chapter in the history of urban development in Central Asia.

The school is a key institution to form the socio-cultural potential of the state. Modernization of education remains relevant in the context of modern socio-economic and political challenges that require historical experience to be taken into account. Of particular interest is the period of the 1920s, when the Soviet government carried out radical transformation of the educational system. In national regions, including Chuvashia, reforms were complicated by low literacy rates. Creation of the Chuvash autonomy (1920) became an important factor in the development of the local school. In 2025, the 105th anniversary of this important event is celebrated, which increases interest in the study of this topic and its significance in the context of the Russian education history. The purpose of the research is to study the evolvement and development of the Soviet school in the 1920s in the territory of modern Chuvashia. Materials and methods. When preparing the article, a wide range of published and unpublished sources was used, including legislative acts, office materials, as well as various documents and scientific studies covering the issues of modernizing school education in the context of national state building in the region. Of particular importance among unpublished historical sources were archival documents kept in the funds of the State Historical Archive of the Chuvash Republic and the State Archive of the Russian Federation. These materials provided unique information about transformation of the educational system during the period under study. The territorial scope of the study covers the territory of modern Chuvash Republic. The chronological framework is defined by the 1920s, which is associated with the key processes of transformation of the pre-revolutionary school and formation of the national-state autonomy of the Chuvash people. The theoretical and methodological basis of the work consists of the principles of objectivity and historicism, as well as a set of special historical methods, including historical-comparative, historical-systemic and other approaches that provide a comprehensive analysis of the topic under study. Results. During the 1920s, active work was carried out in the Soviet Russia to create a new school educational system focused on nurturing a new personality. This process was complicated and was accompanied by serious difficulties. The Soviet government completely abandoned the legacy of the old school (educational and methodological literature, forms and methods of organizing classes). Major changes in opening of new schools and in increasing the literacy rate of the population in the territory of modern Chuvashia were associated with the Chuvash autonomy formation. Due to the establishment of statehood of the Chuvash people, creation of a national school in the region was started in 1920. By the early 1930s, certain results could be summed up. The positive ones include quantitative changes marked by an increase in the number of educational institutions, the number of teachers and students, and the development of educational and methodological literature in the Chuvash language. The material and technical base of schools also steadily strengthened, albeit more slowly. Large-scale transformations related to dismantling of the old Russian school and constructing a new Soviet school took place against the background of important historical events (the Civil War, famine, industrialization and collectivization, etc.), which influenced the course of modernization processes. Along with objective factors, the development of the educational sphere was influenced by subjective reasons (public dissatisfaction with the refusal of the Soviet government to teach the basics of religion, conservative views of the peasant population on education, etc.). As a result, in the early 1930s, the Soviet government’s policy towards secondary schools was revised. In order to correct the mistakes made, the Soviet government had to return to the traditional classroom-based educational system. Conclusions. Despite certain errors and miscalculations made towards modernization of school education in the Soviet country in the 1920s, certain successes were achieved. As a result of the Chuvash autonomy establishment, the work on eliminating illiteracy among the Chuvash people became more successful, and then the national school creation began. This made it possible in the 1930s to move towards introducing universal primary education, and the national school was also successfully launched.

Purpose The spatial distribution of investments across entrepreneurial ecosystems reveals patterns of entrepreneurial growth, regional disparities and emerging financial centers, offering a nuanced perspective on the spatiality of entrepreneurial ecosystems. In this article, we investigate how these spatial dynamics have evolved globally from 2004 to 2024. Design/methodology/approach Using an unsupervised machine learning approach – K-Means clustering, chosen for its efficacy in detecting latent regional patterns – we analyze trends in funding volumes, investment valuations, growth metrics and investor density. Drawing from a global dataset of over 11,670 investment records from Crunchbase, we identify shifts in the spatiality of investments across entrepreneurial ecosystems, demonstrating some evolutionary nuances that outline an increasingly complex relational geography in investment flows. Findings During the first decade (2004–2014), spatial investment networks observed across entrepreneurial ecosystems presented much simpler topologies, mainly concentrated in developed economies. In contrast, the period from 2015 to 2024 saw a proliferation of clusters with increasingly complex network topologies and differential elements when comparing different groups. These features shed light on the phenomenon of entrepreneurial ecosystems’ spatial fluidity, a concept that is related to the growing embeddedness of regions in geographical connections that amplify their territorial scope and interconnectedness. Originality/value This study makes a novel theoretical contribution by integrating geospatial methods into entrepreneurial ecosystems literature and offers insights for scholars, investors and policymakers aiming to foster sustained development in ecosystems at different stages of development.

As artificial intelligence (AI) systems become increasingly embedded in cross-border goods and services, the European Union (EU) has undertaken the ambitious task of harmonising liability and conflict-of-laws frameworks to address AI-caused damage. This article critically examines the interaction between the AI Act (AIA), the revised Product Liability Directive (PLD), and the now-withdrawn AI Liability Directive (AILD). The paper explores whether this regulatory architecture sufficiently provides legal certainty, accountability, and access to redress for victims of AI-related harm, particularly in cases involving multiple jurisdictions. Using doctrinal and comparative legal analysis, the article evaluates the substantive, temporal, and territorial scopes of these instruments and their interface with private international law, especially Article 5 of the Rome II Regulation (Rome II). It argues that while the AIA and revised PLD represent a coordinated ex-ante and ex-postregulatory scheme, gaps remain, particularly regarding immaterial harms, collective injuries, and causal complexity in opaque AI systems. The AILD, though withdrawn, would have played a crucial procedural role in harmonising fault-based liability across Member States, particularly by introducing presumptions of causation and disclosure mechanisms. The article concludes that harmonisation of EU liability frameworks requires not only legislative alignment among the AIA, PLD, and future initiatives, but also targeted reforms to private international law rules. Without such integration, the EU risks fragmented litigation, legal uncertainty, and under-enforcement of AI accountability norms across borders.

here is no legal definition in administrative law for the terms „special territorial division” and „special area”. These terms are also not a legal term according to the current legislation. Using the existing achievements of administrative law doctrine, in particular those relevant to the current normative reality, it is possible to develop definitions of these semantically distinct concepts. Territorial divisions, including special territorial divisions, fall within the scope of political-organisational administrative law, as special territorial divisions are created primarily to define the territorial scope of action of non-integrated state administration or other territorial organisational units of administrative entities. A special territory, on the other hand, is a legal institution of substantive administrative law, the essence of which lies primarily in the relationship of an isolated specific space to a special legal regime that limits or extends the existing general legal order.

This article presents a comprehensive analysis of the forms of collaboration involving the voluntary occupation of positions within illegal authorities operating in the temporarily occupied territories of Ukraine. It examines the unique construction of the objective element of collaboration-related offences, which – unlike the traditional understanding of qualifying circumstances as aggravating factors of the basic offence – encompasses autonomous forms of unlawful conduct, each with varying degrees of public danger. The relevance of analysing the forms of collaboration defined in parts 2, 5, and 7 of Article 111-1 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine is substantiated. These provisions reflect the most direct and active forms of cooperation with the occupying regime, creating substantial challenges for law enforcement due to difficulties in proving voluntariness and their close links with other criminal offences against the foundations of national security, thereby raising complex issues of cumulative qualification. The article offers a detailed examination of the shared features of the analyzed forms of collaboration: the socially dangerous conduct manifested in the voluntary occupation of a certain position; the territorial scope limited to temporarily occupied areas; and the existence of a special subject – namely, a citizen of Ukraine. The key differences among these forms lie in the nature of the positions held: those that do not involve managerial or administrative-economic functions (Part 2); those that do (Part 5); or positions within unlawful judicial or law enforcement bodies (Part 7). The formal structure of the criminal offence stipulated in Part 2 of Article 111-1 is explored, which is classified as a criminal misdemeanour. It is established that for this offence to be constituted, the mere fact of voluntarily accepting a certain position in a temporarily occupied territory – without exercising managerial or administrative-economic functions – is sufficient. Based on an analysis of judicial practice, the article identifies problematic aspects in the application of legislation on collaboration, particularly in determining the criteria for the «voluntariness» of the accused’s actions in temporarily occupied territories. It is revealed that courts typically presume voluntariness in the absence of direct evidence of physical coercion, while often failing to adequately consider the influence of psychological pressure under occupation.

Although the digital environment offers numerous opportunities for learning, communication, and leisure for minors, it also presents risks such as cyberbullying, exposure to inappropriate content, privacy issues, or screen dependency. This situation poses a challenge for educational institutions and public policies, which must prevent these risks and promote safe and responsible use of technology. Digital literacy education must go beyond technical proficiency, also integrating critical understanding of digital environments and ethical participation within them. In this context, a comparative analysis of nine digital safety training programmes for minors, developed in various countries and promoted by public, academic, and third-sector entities, is presented. The aim is to identify common patterns, divergences, and gaps that will help guide future actions in critical digital literacy and online risk prevention. The content analysis has been based on predefined themes and categories, examining objectives, target population, content, methodology, implementation, evaluation, accessibility, inclusion, and sustainability. The programmes analysed include established initiatives such as KiVa, eSafety Commissioner, and IS4K, as well as newer proposals such as CODI, Demo Days, Cyberprogram 2.0, Safety.Net, ConRed, and Líderes Digitales. The results reveal a convergence in the preventive approach and focus on cyberbullying, privacy, and safe use of social networks, with teacher training as a key pillar. However, differences in territorial scope, the inclusion of vulnerable students, and the treatment of emerging risks are identified. The need to move towards more inclusive, evaluable, and participatory programmes is concluded, where students also play an active role in building safe, ethical, and inclusive digital environments.

In September 2024, the Council of Europe adopted a framework convention on artificial intelligence, human rights, democracy, and the rule of law. As the first global human rights treaty on AI with a broad material and territorial scope, the Convention represents a significant step toward addressing the transnational effects of AI, including its potential impact on health rights. This article argues that the Convention, in particular, introduces new procedural guarantees for patients under the jurisdiction of contracting states, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of their existing health rights. However, the drafters did not fully capitalize on the opportunity to adapt these rights to the digital context or adopt a transversal approach to human rights, including economic, social, and cultural rights. As a result, the Convention offers limited substantive added value in specifying health rights in the digital age.

The sustainable development of rural economies within the territorial scope of the Geopark located betwen the Colca Valley and volcanoes in the Arequipa region, Peru

This article examines the United Kingdom’s transition from the long-standing “Res Non-Dom” regime to the new Foreign Income and Gains (FIG) regime, effective 6 April 2025. It explores the impact on high-net-worth individuals (HNWIs), the implications for trusts and inheritance tax and transitional measures introduced to ease the shift. Additionally, the article compares the United Kingdom’s evolving tax landscape with alternative regimes in Finland, Hong Kong, Italy, Malta, Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates, offering insights into the response of HNWIs to these changes. Notably, Italy has retained a favourable inheritance and gift tax framework, with relatively low rates and a territorial scope that remains attractive compared to other Member States. However, important changes will take effect 1 January 2025, including a shift to self-assessment and updates to compliance deadlines, while key exemptions – such as those for business and shareholding transfers – have been maintained to support generational continuity.

The aim of this study is to identify relationships between population aging in small towns and the level of their economic competitiveness. These analyses are a continuation of research on the economic competitiveness of small town in Poland. The territorial scope comprised 110 small towns, while the timeframe covered the years 2004–2006, 2011–2013, 2017–2019, and 2020–2021. In this paper, the Perkal method was applied to construct a synthetic measure for the progression of the population aging process in the case of residents of small towns. In turn, the typology method was used to identify types of dependencies between the level of economic competitiveness and the degree of population aging for residents of small towns. In view of the advanced aging of inhabitants in the analyzed towns within the framework of the distinguished types, in the most recent investigated periods, most small towns were assigned to two types. They were the types comprising economically competitive towns, but with aging populations, and economically uncompetitive and aging towns, respectively.

This article explores the territorial scope of criminal law, focusing on its theoretical foundations and legal frameworks in different jurisdictions. It examines how the principle of territoriality is applied in criminal justice systems, comparing legislative approaches from various countries. The study highlights the significance of sovereignty, jurisdiction, and international cooperation in enforcing criminal law across borders. The analysis aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of how territorial limits affect the implementation of criminal responsibility and the pursuit of justice in a globalized legal environment.

ABSTRACT The Consumer Protection Act 2019 (“CPA 2019”) is India’s principal consumer protection law. However, the rise of international consumer contracts has made consumer dispute resolution complex. This complexity is exacerbated by standard-term contracts prioritizing corporate interests over consumer rights. While CPA 2019 provides mechanisms for consumer redress, its extraterritorial application remains ambiguous because of the absence of clear conflict-of-law rules. This article assesses CPA 2019’s reach, authority to invalidate exploitative dispute resolution clauses, and potential to supplant foreign law. It advocates for strengthening Indian conflict-of-law rules to align with international standards established in other jurisdictions. This would enhance the uniformity and predictability of consumer protection in India, improve safeguards, and reduce the risk of consumer exploitation.

Urban regeneration is often presented by those responsible as an unquestionable success story. Barcelona’s transformation from the mid-1980s, with its great Olympic momentum and successive attempts to maintain its international status, is perhaps one of the most widely publicized and celebrated. Among the operations, the waterfront stands out as one of the most significant regeneration efforts due to their territorial scope, social implications, and economic impact. In this text, we want to challenge this official success story with other untold stories: the stories of the preexisting spaces that have been erased, the people who have been displaced, and the industrial heritage that has been destroyed. There are hardly any memories left, and the regeneration projects seem to be built on a previous emptiness. The discourses of success are often accompanied by maps that conceal the process of change and, at the same time, present the regeneration projects as disconnected from other spaces and processes. Maps appear as artifacts with great limitations in their capacity to represent complex and time-delayed processes and, at the same time, have enough power to legitimize urban regeneration as beneficial to all. However, maps can also be powerful tools for changing the way regeneration processes are told and who tells them, thus revealing what has been hidden.