Territorial Conflicts Research Articles

Pembuatan Tapal Batas di Pekon Malaya Kecamatan Lemong, Kabupaten Pesisir Barat, Lampung

The certainty of village boundaries is important in the management of rural areas. The lack of clarity in the boundaries between Pekon Malaya and Pekon Bambang in Lemong District, Pesisir Barat Regency, Lampung, has led to the need to establish clear boundaries between the two villages. This study aims to construct physical boundary markers between the two pekons to avoid territorial conflicts. The methods used include inter-village consultation, design, and physical construction of the boundary markers. The main result of this study is the creation of clear physical boundary markers between Pekon Malaya and Pekon Bambang, which can be used as a reference in resolving village boundary issues in the future. The conclusion of this study is that the construction of physical boundary markers can be an effective solution to address the problem of unclear village boundaries.

An Overview of Pharmacovigilance Practice and Management in Sub-Saharan African Countries

Most sub-Sahara African countries faced with prolonged resource deficiencies suffers specific constraints in establishing a functional and operationally-free pharmacovigilance systems platforms which should guide and in facilitate the generation of vital data to reinforce health information policies and practices. Despite the commendable efforts invested by the different stake holders within such countries to harmonize pharmacovigilance guidelines and regulations, lack of integration and the dependence on pharmacovigilance systems remain major constrains. Other identified difficulties are those associated with the problem of translating data reporting tools into multiple communicable languages, and the inadequacy of the healthcare experts who translates with the patient’s population, the pressure imposed by the short consultation time between a patient and a health practitioner. To add to this, there exist issues of community concern like the increasing use of herbal traditional products with anecdotal therapeutic evidence, low quality, self-medication practices, counterfeit and roadside drugs use, substandard medications that are readily accessible to the population. Some prolonged problems are associated with social and political instability, territorial conflicts, little or no access to drug utilization data, which makes it difficult to reliably estimate the true risks of medication use. Pharmacovigilance activities are still at its infancy due to poor and less trained health personnel, lack of budget allocation for health vigilance from the State financial attributions. In addition to the limited investment in pharmacovigilance activities, there is little collaboration between public health programmes and National Medicines Regulatory Authorities (NMRA), especially during mass drug administration for neglected tropical diseases and mass vaccinations. Frequent spontaneous report in SSA is low and this can hinder robust signal detection analyses. This paper attempts to identify the challenges of the practice of pharmacovigilance in sub-Saharan African countries and its implication in health vigilance in the community. In this paper, we review the specific challenges and areas of progress in pharmacovigilance in SSA.

Livelihood Challenges of the River Fishermen in Bangladesh: A Systematic Review and Recommendations for the Policy and Practice

Fishing in rivers is one of the major occupations of fisher communities of Bangladesh who live near the river banks across the country. The objectives of this qualitative review are to identify the key livelihood challenges experienced by the river fishermen (fishers) and to recommend some policies in light of the previous studies available for review. The researchers used a systematic review guided by the PRISMA method/guidelines. Boolean search strings were used to identify the literature from databases like PubMed, MDPI, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. The findings show that the fishers' communities are excluded from mainstream society and deprived of enjoyment of basic human rights and needs. Also, they are suffering from extreme levels of economic hardships and vulnerabilities, climate change-related natural catastrophes, diseases, and poor communication systems. The fisher communities were also found to experience social stigma, social exclusion, and isolation. Moreover, family pressure linked to demographic change, financial constraints, poor market facilities, reduction of fishing areas for territorial conflicts, political unrest, and pressure from the musclemen and socially miscreants or deviant persons is observed in the study. The fishers were also found to suffer from a shortage of fishing gear, boats, nets, and resources. Based on the systematic review of literature related to the study, several policy recommendations have been made that contribute to promoting the quality of lives of fishermen (fishers) through socio-economic, cultural, physical-infrastructural, and environmental development.

Timeo danaos et dona ferentes, або як Кремль дружив з незалежною Литвою проти другої Речі Посполитої (1918–1940): історична та історико-правова розвідка

Soviet foreign policy in the interwar (1918–1939) period was carried out on the basis of the strategy and tactics of the "world revolution", which, in turn, provided for the rallying of all "anti-imperialist forces", including the so-called oppressed peoples. While supporting the struggle of the Hindus against the British colonialists or the Chinese Kuomintang against imperial Japan, the Kremlin manipulators did not let the European continent out of their sight. One of the powerful knots of contradictions at that time became the Polish-Lithuanian relations, caused by the forceful annexation of the Vilnius region by the Poles, even contrary to the decision of the Versailles Conference. From the very beginning of the conflict, the Union of the SSR sided with Kaunas under the Pharisaic slogan of the right of nations to self-determination. Explanations for this lay on the surface. First, the interwar Second Commonwealth in its then borders was a project of the Council of Ambassadors of the Versailles Conference (primarily of France), concerned about the Soviet threat. Secondly, Moscow did not have a territorial conflict with Lithuania, but it did with Poland. Thirdly, actual (non)intervention in the conflict, its intensification or, on the contrary, its weakening could be used as a bargaining chip in relations with third states (such as Germany). Kaunas also had its interest, which lay on the surface (Vilnius region). The Soviet invasion of Poland, carried out under the pretext of taking under the protection of the population, which the "unreasonable policy of the Polish authorities" allegedly put in an extremely dangerous situation, was accompanied by a "generous" act of restoration of historical justice for the Lithuanians offended by the Polish invaders. However, in less than a year, the Soviet Janus showed his true face to the until recently friendly Lithuania.

Assessment of the migration processes on the example of Kazakhstan

Today's migration is a rather complex and controversial process. Having a number of advantages and positive results for the development of the receiving and sending countries, it also leads to negative consequences. The more a country's population is involved in migration processes, the more acutely its consequences manifest. The situation is also aggravated by the increasing economic and political crises, which negatively affect the ability of third countries to maintain internal stability. The issue does not exclude the Central Asian region in the context of the intensification of local armed conflicts in adjacent territories and current geopolitical aspects. The study purpose is to assess migration processes and their impact on the Republic of Kazakhstan as the one of the ‘host’ countries in Central Asia. A chronology of key economic events regarding strategic opportunities in the migration processes was carried out. Taking into account the current regional and global challenges, it has been established that the current trends in migration processes have a positive effect on the development of the labor market as an important component of the national economy, contributing to an increase in the welfare of the country. At the same time, the policy of Kazakhstan is also trying to pursue a pragmatic immigration policy to prevent the negative impact of immigrants on the local population.

Precipitation explains Wood Thrush (Hylocichla mustelina) occupancy patterns in Northern Costa Rica

Introduction: The Wood Thrush is a migratory bird that has experienced dramatic declines in its populations in recent decades. This species overwinters in forest fragments with intermediate levels of habitat modification in Central America. However, more studies detailing the use of remnant forests through time are needed to elucidate the threats this species faces in the wintering grounds. Objective: To understand the effects of environmental and forest structure variables on the occupancy of Wood Thrush in Northern Costa Rica. Methods: The study area was the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG), located in Northern Costa Rica, in December 2016, and during the 2018-2019 migration season. We estimated Wood Thrush occupancy and detection probability in four locations of ACG (dry forest, cloud forest, and two locations in the wet forest) using single-season occupancy models. We also estimated Wood Thrush occupancy and probability of persistence in different months in three vegetation types (open area, secondary forest, and old-growth forest) in the wet forest of ACG using a multi-season occupancy model approach. Results: Wood Thrush occupancy was best described by precipitation in the four locations of the ACG; the probability of occupancy increased with precipitation. The average occupancy of Wood Thrushes varied with vegetation type: open area with shrubs and forest edge (0.69 ± 0.09), secondary forest (0.46 ± 0.1), and old-growth forest (0.61 ± 0.1). Wood Thrush probability of persistence responded partially to changes in precipitation, with an unexpected increase in persistence when the rainfall continued decreasing in the season. Conclusion: Wood Thrush occupancy was best predicted by changes in precipitation considering a larger spatial scale. Its probability of persistence partially varied with precipitation. An increase in persistence closer to Spring migration might be explained by the start of the breeding season of resident birds, potentially reducing territorial conflicts and conserving energy before migration. The long-term protection of wet forests in Northern Costa Rica is of paramount importance for the conservation of Wood Thrushes in their wintering grounds.

Ключевые риски развития транспортно-логистического проекта «Средний коридор»

The article deals with the problem of creating meridian transport logistics routes along the China–Europe line using the example of the Middle Corridor. The position of the transit states of the South Caucasus within the framework of this route (Azerbaijan and Georgia) is assessed, the current state and dynamics of the develop-ment of the Middle Corridor are investigated. The article also highlights and analyzes the key political and eco-nomic risks affecting the dynamics of transport and logistics ties in the region in the context of territorial con-flicts in the South Caucasus, the conduct of a special military operation in Ukraine, tensions between China and the collective West, as well as in the light of the influence of other factors of modern geopolitics. It is concluded that Russia’s position on the issue under consideration is determined by its own interests, according to which priority in cooperation is given to Iran and the countries of the Transcaucasia, since the construction of the North–South route will contribute to the development of the region under consideration, ensuring stability and security in the South Caucasus without prejudice to national security.

The Impact of Armed Conflict on Inward Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): An Analysis of Conflict Over Government, Conflict Over Territory, and FDI

ABSTRACT We examine the relationship between armed conflict and foreign direct investment (FDI) in host countries. With data from 113 nations from 1984 to 2014, system GMM and macro-panel CCEMG estimators show that intrastate armed conflict decreases FDI in conflict-ridden hosts. Further, we distinguish two types of armed conflict – conflict over government and conflict over territory. Conflict over government has significant short-term and long-term negative impacts on FDI, while the effect of territorial conflicts appears insignificant. Our results also suggest that armed conflict's harmful impact on FDI mainly occurs in middle- and low-income host countries.

Attitudes Toward Refugees in the Shadow of Territorial Conflict: Evidence From Cyprus

Attitudes Toward Refugees in the Shadow of Territorial Conflict: Evidence From Cyprus

GÜRCİSTAN EKONOMİSİNİN TEMEL ZORLUKLARI VE GÜRCİSTAN-AB İLİŞKİLERİNİN GENİŞLEMESİ ÜZERİNE BEKLENTİLER

The association agreement between the EU and Georgia (the country) was signed as early as 2014 and this agreement fully entered into force in July 2016. The agreement represents the foundation for political association and economic integration. Just now, Georgia made one more step towards Europe. On November 8, 2023, the European Commission gave the recommendation on granting Georgia the status of candidate. Besides the fact that it is an important event of political significance, the economic benefits also should be mentioned. Many economists in Georgia mention this in their assessments though there are the opposite views. Some of the Georgian economists consider this opinion as excessive. The European Union, based on common values, supports the peace and stability for Georgia, as well as the necessity of the programs for the political and economic reforms needed for social and economic development of the country. Granting the status of the candidate is a guarantee for the well-being of the country. It will have positive influences on investments, exports, and broader marketing between the European countries and Georgia. This is the aim for Georgia to which the country has been aspiring for several years. Besides the above-mentioned, we see that the EU firmly supports Georgia, in its territorial integrity. The EU is involved in the solution of the territorial problems existing with the self-announced regions of Abkhazia and so-called South Ossetia. Georgia has prolonged territorial conflicts with the mentioned regions. Beginning in the year 2008, the monitoring process is working on the territory near the administrative borders. The 1st of October 2023, was the date of the 15th anniversary of the European mission working in the region.

Analyzing pre and post Israel Anti-Zionism in the Backdrop of Road to Mecca and Journey into Europe

This study underscores analytical interrelationship of prejudiced West based upon economic, political and territorial biases which affects Jews as well as Muslim world in different genres. The study entails intertextuality between Akbar S. Ahmed’s Journey into Europe and M. Asad’s Road to Macca and compares Ibn Khauldunian tribalism that bedunis are inheritors of a very ancient civilization to Webarian colonism. It keeps its focus that politically, historically as well as post structurally each text is an intersection of other texts. The writing’s purpose is to touch the ground roots of Arab civilization and it also highlights Western contribution to territorial conflicts between Arab and Israel. The Jewish enmity in general and more specifically the Western biased attitude against Palestinians can be analyzed under the paradigm of Anti-Semitism in a befitting manner as well as to clarify that Arab Anti-Zionism and Anti-Semitism are two different ideologies. This study signifies the role of Saud Bin Abdul Aziz (1953-1964) and his successor Shah Faisal Bin Abdul Aziz (1964-1975) against Israel and compares it with the Western plotted Crown prince M. Bin Salman (2017-so on) implementing theory of asabiyyah. It is also highlighted that in present times the uprising anti-American feelings among Muslims are due to the unjust and unlawful migration of Jews to Arab and biased territorial division of Palestine. The targeted Muslims in the West are prejudiced just for having Muslim identity and the ratio of attacks on Muslim mosques increased after 9/11. Psychologically, socio-culturally, socio-politically and socio-religiously, this historical study examines the ideology of the Muslim world that gives new identity and direction to the West as well as their misconceptions.

Polskie kresy – bliskie i dalekie (1918-1939)

: The subject of Borderlands situated further away and close by is presented not by accident. In the Polish historical narrative, we usually remember only about the Eastern Borderlands. Created by Henryk Sienkiewicz’s “Trilog”, known from the pages of Polish history, being a place of birth to Polish poets, they are inevitably memorable and integral part of Poland’s national tradition. This notion is so strong that the word ‘Borderlands’ is associated only with the formed eastern territories of Poland. We do not use this terminology for other areas. We think only of the eastern borderlands which were gradually lost between the 17th and 20th century. This article also mentions this fact. Nevertheless, the article presents a slightly different perspective, i.e. it tries to present the Borderlands that were distant because they were unknown or known very little, the Borderlands which did not manage to enter the Polish narratives and Polish historical memory for good. They entered Poland for a very short time and disappeared for it very quickly. Nowadays they are abroad and they are practically unknown. The distant, unknown former Polish western Borderlands was Trans-Olza (Zaolzie). The Silesian residents living there in the 19th century shaped mostly Polish national identity, i.e. at the time when the then modern European nations were establishing. Undoubtedly, this was influenced by a strong economic development of the territory of Cieszyn Silesia. On the one hand, it was a blessing, but on the other hand, it turned out to be its curse, causing the rivalry over this land between the Poles and Czechs. The conflict over this territory, where the ethnic issues played no significant role for the powers considering this matter. Moreover, it inscribed into different types of territorial conflicts that Europe experienced after the First World War. For the borders established by the victorious allied forces as part of the Versailles treaty were not entirely fair in any place, which, in turn, is an obvious matter because it is never possible to set borders that would fully satisfy all the parties of the conflict. This was also the case of the Polish-Czech conflict over Cieszyn Silesia. The rivalry did not cease with the borders being established by the allied forces in July 1920, and both countries were still interested in the population living there. The population faced assimilative activities as the so-called ‘Polonized Moravians’ by the Czechoslovakian Republic. On the other hand, this population became a causation for Poland when reclaiming this area in autumn 1938. In the second part of the article presents the realities of life in Trans-Olza in the second half of the 1930s, which were witnessed by Paweł Hulka-Laskowski. He collected material for his monumental work on Trans-Olza Silesia. This work is practically unknown today, but it is an equivalent of the results of Melchior Wańkowicz’s travels around East Prussia in the book Na tropach Smętka. Who has ever heard in Poland of the work by Paweł Hulka-Laskowski Śląsk za Olzą Similarly, who has the knowledge of the long-forgotten Western Borderlands? This article introduces readers to this subject matter.

The Socio-Economic Life of Fisher Communities Living on the Migingo Island of Lake Victoria

Using a qualitative methodology and a descriptive research design, this study examined the socioeconomic conditions of Migingo Island in 1991. Theories of liberalism and power informed the study through the use of phenomenological techniques, such as focus groups, oral interviews, archived materials, and secondary data. The results show that the socioeconomic dynamics of Migingo Island are related to geopolitical issues, including the territorial conflicts between Kenya and Uganda. The fishing sector fosters economic cooperation, but it also raises challenges related to cleanliness and congestion. The study promotes inclusive approaches that involve local stakeholders in order to guarantee sustainable development in the area. Based on the findings, the study recommended that clear governance and jurisdiction agreements be established to alleviate tensions. Furthermore, investment in basic services like education and healthcare is essential for human development. Involving local stakeholders in community-driven solutions and promoting diplomatic conflict resolution could help foster stability and sustainable development. Addressing these issues is vital for the well-being of Migingo Island and its residents, while also reflecting larger geopolitical concerns.

Chimpanzees make tactical use of high elevation in territorial contexts.

Tactical warfare is considered a driver of the evolution of human cognition. One such tactic, considered unique to humans, is collective use of high elevation in territorial conflicts. This enables early detection of rivals and low-risk maneuvers, based on information gathered. Whether other animals use such tactics is unknown. With a unique dataset of 3 years of simultaneous behavioral and ranging data on 2 neighboring groups of western chimpanzees, from the Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire, we tested whether chimpanzees make decisions consistent with tactical use of topography to gain an advantage over rivals. We show that chimpanzees are more likely to use high hills when traveling to, rather than away from, the border where conflict typically takes place. Once on border hills, chimpanzees favor activities that facilitate information gathering about rivals. Upon leaving hills, movement decisions conformed with lowest risk engagement, indicating that higher elevation facilitates the detection of rivals presence or absence. Our results support the idea that elevation use facilitated rival information gathering and appropriate tactical maneuvers. Landscape use during territorial maneuvers in natural contexts suggests chimpanzees seek otherwise inaccessible information to adjust their behavior and points to the use of sophisticated cognitive abilities, commensurate with selection for cognition in species where individuals gain benefits from coordinated territorial defense. We advocate territorial contexts as a key paradigm for unpicking complex animal cognition.

Theorising the causal impacts of social frontiers: The social and psychological implications of discontinuities in the geography of residential mix

Until very recently, the question of how residents might be affected by the gradient of neighbourhood boundaries – whether these boundaries are abrupt or gradual – has remained largely absent from mainstream segregation research. Yet, theoretical and empirical findings emerging from recent studies suggest the impacts could be profound and far-reaching. This article seeks to provide a conceptual foundation for understanding such effects. We focus on the concept of ‘social frontiers’: spatial discontinuities in the geography of residential mix which occur when community boundaries are abrupt. Drawing on insights from cognate disciplines, we develop a theory of social frontier impacts that articulates their potential importance in limiting and shaping contact between neighbouring communities, exacerbating territorial conflict and ultimately affecting the psychological wellbeing and life course outcomes of those living at the frontier. We present our thesis as a series of propositions and corollaries, and reflect on the implications for empirical research.

Cartographies of Contemporary Class Struggles

This essay provides an interdisciplinary analysis of the work of the Iconoclasistas, a Buenos Aires-based duo whose practice combines graphic art, counter-cartography, radical pedagogy, and militant research. The Iconoclasistas’ heterodox landscape illustrations and collectively produced maps demonstrate how various territorial conflicts in South America express class struggles that operate at multiple geographic scales. In so doing, they show how apparently local conflicts express dynamics of transnational capitalist accumulation, including its neocolonial character, while also revealing material relations between seemingly disparate popular struggles. This essay focuses on the Iconoclasistas’ early work representing urban life in Argentina from 2007, as well as on works addressing the deleterious effects of extractivism (or neoextractivism) created between 2007 and 2019. I argue that these works contribute to the insights of ecological Marxism by showing how contemporary processes of capitalist accumulation plunder nature and shape social and natural environments in ways that degrade the living conditions of people of the working and popular classes, as well as those of other species. The Iconoclasistas’ collective mapping workshops utilize techniques of Marxist pedagogy, while bringing attention to visual ideologies and ways spatial relations shape consciousness. This essay shows how this practice was influenced by the politics and organizational forms of recent social movements, and how it contributes to their production of knowledge. It also situates the Iconoclasistas’ work within a tradition of Marxist cultural praxis that values formal experimentation and that concerns itself with reworking the social relations of cultural production, distribution, and reception.

“I Am Very Sexy, Sexy, Sexy”

Abstract This article focuses on the story of one transfeminine (transgen, in local parlance) wedding singer, Shabu, identifying through interviews, observation, and song analysis the possibilities of self-expression for transgens as well as for cisgender women who attend these performances. How have they carved out agency for themselves amid Kashmir’s territorial conflict over its sovereignty? The article demonstrates how Kashmiri gendered futures are intimately tied to courageous and innovative performances in women’s spaces, even within pronounced systemic constraints. Shabu’s songs concern women’s agency, gender dynamics and roles, family relationships, and gender presentation both in and outside women’s familial household and community/kin networks. The songs both embody accepted tradition and open doors to innovation, protest, and political commentary. The digital life of these performances on YouTube has contributed to their dissemination and popularity. This article addresses questions arising from shifting contexts of transgens’ wedding-song performances and contributes to the body of analysis of digital folklore through decolonial feminist and queer folkloristic lenses.

Territorial ownership perceptions and reconciliation in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict: A person‐centred approach

AbstractWe investigate land ownership claims and reconciliation‐related outcomes in the intractable Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Using a person‐centred approach and drawing on survey data of Jewish and Palestinian citizens of Israel, we (1) identify profiles with differing ingroup and outgroup ownership perceptions, (2) examine how profile membership depends on group identifications and the endorsement of ownership principles, and (3) assess how reconciliation intentions and support for concrete territorial conflict solutions differ across the profiles. The majority of the Jews (87%) perceived exclusive ingroup ownership of the contested land, whereas 13% perceived shared Jewish and Palestinian ownership. In contrast, most of the Palestinians perceived moderate levels of shared ownership (43%) followed by ingroup ownership (36%), but we also identified profiles with high levels of shared ownership (11%) and exclusive outgroup ownership (10%). We conclude that Jewish and Palestinian citizens of Israel have different understandings of land ownership. Complex patterns of endorsing various ownership principles and levels of group identifications explained profile membership, mostly in line with our expectations. Importantly, the profiles differed in attitudes towards concrete territorial solutions and intergroup reconciliation, attesting to the relevance of examining ownership perceptions in conflict regions from a person‐centred approach.

Literary View towards Unresolved Territorial Conflicts in Northeast Asia: Focusing on Inherent Community Memory between South Korea and Japan and Collective Perception of South Korean

Purpose: This article is to explore to understand the realistic background of the territorial conflicts, it has limitations in the understanding and resolution of the territorial conflicts at a more fundamental level regarding the humanities approach. In this respect, it is important to analyze the unresolved territorial conflicts based on the literary view from a humanistic approach based on a political and cultural perspective rather than a confrontation based on the logic of power.
 Method: The humanities approach is especially literature, contains the conflict generation and resolution process at the human level. The literary works representing each country, especially novels and tales, uniquely demonstrate the origin and development of the conflicts through their own plots. Based on which, it will be possible to understand how the territorial disputes will develop by country at the cultural level.
 Results: This article has not suggested a fundamental resolution for the territorial conflicts of Northeast Asia, and especially the historical issues of Dokdo between South Korea and Japan. However, it is important to take a humanistic approach focusing on the literary works as ideological, economic, cultural, and nationalist conflicts. This is because the memory of intersecting harms and damages as ideological, economic, cultural, and nationalistic confrontations are repeated with a focus on the Korean Peninsula and Manchuria are the factors that continue the conflict.
 Conclusion: As the historical contexts are different, the cultural and psychological tendencies are also unique, and the territorial disputes develop through the combination of such factors. In order to analyze the collective psychology and conflict of the South Koreans who experienced the loss of sovereignty and division due to Japan’s forced annexation, and the territorial and historical issues surrounding the Island of Dokdo, which has been an obstacle to the normalization of the South Korea-Japan relations to this day, the culture of the time literature works dealing with modern and contemporary history that reflect the culture and language have been considered.

Use of mandibular tusks as weapons in the aggressive behavior of the burrowing mayfly Rhoenanthus coreanus (Yoon and Bae, 1985) (Ephemeroptera: Potamanthidae)

In larvae of burrowing mayflies (Ephemeroidea), mandibular tusks are generally associated with burrowing and/or feeding. This study reports, for the first time, the use of mandibular tusks as weapons in the aggressive behavior of the burrowing mayfly Rhoenanthus coreanus (Yoon and Bae, 1985) (Potamanthidae). The larvae used their tusks as weapons in combat behaviors such as tusking, which was observed in 60.81% and 62.98% of the studied males and females, respectively. Most cases involved combat by tusking between females (70.45%), followed by combat between males (21.60%), and combat between male and female individuals (3.97%). Aggressive behavior was more common in female larvae with longer mandibular tusks. Positive relationships were observed between the number of cases of aggressive behavior (i.e., tusking) and the size of mandibular tusks in both male and female larvae (p < 0.001). Female larvae with large mandibular tusks (5.00 ± 0.50 mm) could use their tusks to lift their opponents in a manner similar to horned beetles. Contests typically occurred as a result of territorial conflict and served as a means to find or retain occupied shelters for feeding and hiding.