The article provides a comprehensive analysis of dialectal forms of the conditional mood in Boyko dialects. The research is based on contemporary field recordings of Boyko speech, folklore texts, and linguistic-geographical sources, which make it possible to trace the areal distribution and variability of grammatical forms. It has been established that the conditional mood in Boiko dialects is represented both by normative models with the particle би (б) and by archaic constructions with personal affixes (-м, -с, -смо, -сте, etc.), which derive from forms of the auxiliary verb быти. These models of the conditional mood attest to the preservation of ancient morphological mechanisms in contemporary dialectal speech. The observed variability attests to the combination of archaic elements with new trends in development, caused both by the internal dynamics of the dialectal system and the influence of the literary language. Compound forms with the meaning of the past perfect tense, which arose as a result of the contamination of the conditional mood with forms of the past perfect tense, have also been recorded. The results of the study deepen our knowledge of the morphological structure of Boyko dialects and outline prospects for further study of the verbal paradigm of Ukrainian dialects.

Across dialects of English, children with developmental language disorder demonstrate weaknesses in both tense morphology and complex syntax, yet intervention targets often address these domains separately. This study examined whether clinician input during a complex syntax intervention provides rich and varied models of tense morphology. Using a secondary analysis of data from 1 arm of a randomized controlled teletherapy trial, we analyzed clinician utterances during an intervention targeting complement clauses embedded in science instruction for 10 children with developmental language disorder (4-7years old). A total of 1753 clinician utterances containing complement clauses were coded. Clinicians produced 2491 tense morphemes, with regular past tense occurring most frequently, followed by verbal -s and irregular past tense. Past tense morphemes occurred primarily in independent clauses, whereas present tense forms occurred more often in dependent clauses; copula and auxiliary BE forms were largely confined to dependent clauses. Clinicians produced 47 unique matrix verbs, most with overt tense marking. Results suggest that complement clause interventions can simultaneously support tense morphology through dense, structurally informative input, supporting integrated approaches to grammar intervention.

This study aims to investigate the implementation of Genre-Based Pedagogy (GBP) operationalised through the Teaching and Learning Cycle (TLC) supported by animated videos in teaching recount-text writing at the junior secondary level. Specifically, it focuses on: (1) how the implementation of GBP/TLC with animated videos affects students’ ability to write recount texts, and (2) how students respond to the instructional activities in terms of their engagement, linguistic challenges, and reliance on teacher and peer support. The study employed a Classroom Action Research design conducted over two cycles in one class of Grade 9 students at a junior secondary school in Purwakarta, involving approximately thirty learners. Data were collected through students’ written texts, classroom observations, reflective journals, and semi-structured interviews. Students’ writings were analysed descriptively based on content, organisation, vocabulary, grammar, and mechanics, while qualitative data were analysed thematically. The findings indicate that the implementation of GBP/TLC with animated videos effectively improved students’ recount-text writing. Students developed clearer genre awareness, produced more coherently organised texts following the orientation–events–reorientation pattern, and showed more accurate use of simple past tense forms and temporal connectives. In addition, students responded positively to the lessons; they reported higher levels of engagement, motivation, and interest, particularly when learning was supported by animated videos and collaborative activities. Nevertheless, they continued to face challenges related to vocabulary choice, grammatical accuracy, and cohesion, which required ongoing scaffolding from teachers and peers. Overall, the study suggests that integrating GBP/TLC with animated videos is a promising approach to enhancing students’ recount-writing ability and fostering more positive attitudes toward writing in the junior-secondary EFL context.

The aim of this article is to examine the peculiarities of the functioning of such a widespread narrative technique in the 20th and 21st centuries as the present historical tense. Based on the material of H. Mantel's novel "The Mirror and the Light," which is the final part of the Thomas Cromwell trilogy, it analyzes the grammatical, psychological, and fictional aspects of using praesens historicum in free indirect speech, allowing the author to combine the subjective perception of time by the character with the dramatization of historical narrative, as well as to compare the events with paintings created by an artist. Special attention is paid to the role of the present tense in creating a fictional space oriented towards theatricality, eternal return, and reversibility of time, as well as in linking the individual memory of the hero with the philosophical reflection on history. The methodology of analysis is based on the combination of linguistic stylistic and narrative analyses, which allows us to consider how the grammatical technique transforms into an element of artistic poetics and influences the perception of historical time in the text. It is shown that the choice of this tense form becomes an important artistic and linguistic stylistic device that ensures the cohesion of the text and forms a particular concept of time in the trilogy. Possible areas of application for the results include commentary on Russian-language editions, revision of translation, and teaching linguistic stylistic analysis. The novelty of the work lies in demonstrating how, at the level of narration, praesens historicum forms the integrity of the text, ensuring the cohesion of disparate episodes and engaging the reader in the subjective perception of events. By combining the present tense with verbs of perception and cognitive activity, an effect of psychological presence is created, and the fate of Thomas Cromwell unfolds as a dramatic action rather than as something completed, described in the form of a chronicle. The introduction of a theatrical dimension and reference to the legacy of W. Shakespeare allows the narrative to be perceived as a stage where historical events are played out again and again.

This study investigates the kinds and functions of tenses used in the English for Nusantara textbook for Grade VII Junior High School (SMP/MTs). The research aims to identify which tenses appear in the textbook and to analyze how their functions are presented in relation to students’ learning needs under the Kurikulum Merdeka. This study employs a descriptive qualitative method with content analysis techniques. The data consist of sentences containing verb tenses collected from all chapters of the textbook. The analysis is based on grammatical theories proposed by Swan and supported by Hermann Ebbinghaus’s theories of the Forgetting Curve and Spacing Effect. The findings reveal that five types of tenses are used in the textbook: Simple Present Tense, Present Continuous Tense, Present Perfect Tense, Simple Past Tense, and Simple Future Tense. Among these, the Simple Present Tense is the most dominant and is presented with relatively complete functions, while other tenses appear with limited frequency and incomplete functional coverage. This uneven distribution indicates that the textbook does not yet provide sufficient and balanced exposure to all tense forms, which may affect students’ long-term retention and mastery of English grammar. Therefore, it is recommended that future textbook development distribute tense usage more evenly to support effective grammatical learning.

Politeness has garnered the attention of many scholars worldwide, who have focused on the types of face-threatening acts and the strategies employed to mitigate them. Despite extensive theorisation of politeness, empirical studies in many African languages remain scarce. This study analyses the politeness strategies used by Matengo speakers to mitigate face-threatening acts (FTAs) in casual conversations. The research adopted a qualitative, descriptive design and was conducted in Mbinga District, Ruvuma Region, Tanzania. Data were collected through audio recording of naturally occurring conversations, participant observation, and semi-structured interviews with Matengo native speakers. The interviews were intended to confirm the information collected through participant observation. A total of ten conversational transcripts and interviews with fifteen informants were analysed using thematic analysis. The findings reveal that Matengo speakers employ a range of politeness strategies to mitigate FTAs. The strategies include the use of past tense forms when making requests, plural personal pronouns with singular reference, the politeness clitic oti/ote ‘please’, diminutive morphemes ka- and tu-, and traditional specific address names. These strategies function to minimise imposition, signal deference, and protect the negative face of interlocutors. The study further demonstrates that politeness in Matengo is strongly shaped by social variables, including age, kinship relations, marital status, and relative power, resulting in a predominance of vertical politeness over horizontal solidarity-based politeness. This study, therefore, provides insights into how Matengo speakers maintain respect, harmony and order within their community. Furthermore, the findings document linguistic practices that may be at risk of change due to language contact.

The aim of the study is to identify the main speech acts in which future tense forms function in French and Tatar languages. The article reveals the pragmatic potential of future tense forms. It is shown that in both languages, future tense forms are actively involved in the realization of speech acts. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the fact that, for the first time, speech acts in which future tense grammatical forms typically function have been identified, and their characteristics in Tatar and French have been determined. As a result of the study, five most typical speech acts were identified: promise, prediction, command, threat, and prospective praise. In Tatar, the definite future form dominates in the realization of speech acts of promise and threat; this form also prevails in expressing prediction and command, while in the act of praise, they are equally represented. In French, the simple future predominates in the realization of speech acts of promise, prediction, and threat; in the speech act of command, the immediate future is more involved, while in the act of praise, they are equally represented. In French, negative future tense forms are more frequently used, whereas in Tatar, they are observed only when expressing an act of threat. In Tatar, future tense forms are more actively involved in the realization of speech acts of prediction, threat, and promise than in French.

The paper offers a novel analysis of deverbal, copulaless predicative forms derived with the suffix -(e)mi̮n in Udmurt. These have commonly been referred to as resultative participles in the literature, but have also been analysed as predicates of passive constructions and as perfects. The main question was whether a uniform analysis can be provided. The objective was to investigate whether -(e)mi̮n constructions show the same behaviour in 19th century folklore data and in contemporary corpus data. Results show that while all examples in the old data can be analysed as resultatives, -(e)mi̮n constructions have a heterogeneous use in contemporary Udmurt: the resultative use prevails, but some instances can be analysed as actional passives, others as perfects and still others as past tense forms. I argue that diachronically, the primary function of -(e)mi̮n forms was the expression of resultativity, and the synchronic heterogeneity is the reflection of two ongoing and typologically common grammaticalization processes: resultative > passive and resultative > perfect > past tense.

The aim of the study is to develop a set of exercises aimed at forming the skills for using aspectual forms of the Russian verb among Francophone students taking into account typical interference errors. The article examines the functional features of the category of aspect in the Russian verb in comparison with aspectual means of the French language. The work analyzes the distribution of functions of the Imperfective Aspect (IA) and the Perfective Aspect (PA) in expressing duration, result, and background action, as well as their interrelation with the French verb tenses imparfait, passé composé, futur simple, and futur composé. A separate area of aspectual difficulty is described, related to the neutral past meaning of IA verbs without explicit reference to the result, which lacks a direct functional equivalent in the French verb system. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the systematization of interference errors made by Francophones and the construction of a set of exercises structured according to the identified areas of aspectual risk. The analysis revealed the main mechanisms of interference: the transfer of temporal correlations of the French verb to aspectual oppositions of the Russian verb, the confusion of future tense forms, and the misunderstanding of the semantics of the past IA. A set of exercises is proposed, including: an orientation and preparatory stage with contrastive tasks for distinguishing process, result, and background action; an imitation and training stage with exercises for practicing prefixed PA verbs in the past and future tenses; and an automatization and productive stage with communicative exercises aimed at selecting the correct aspectual form in coherent speech. The proposed set of exercises is considered a means of reducing the frequency of interference errors and transitioning from the formal distinction of aspectual forms to their meaningful and partially automated use in communicative situations.

This thesis investigates the types and dominant errors made by tenth-grade students of MA Nurussalam Tetebatu in the academic year 2024/2025 when writing recount texts, specifically focusing on their use of the past tense. Writing is identified as a challenging skill for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students in Indonesia, often leading to grammatical errors, particularly in recount texts which necessitate the use of past tense to retell events. The study categorized errors into four main types: omission, addition, misformation (selection), and misordering. Employing a descriptive quantitative research design, the research involved a sample of 62 students from classes X.2 and X.4, selected using cluster sampling from a total population of 130 tenth-grade students. Data was collected through a writing test where students composed a recount text titled "My Past Holiday". The analysis involved identifying, describing, and explaining the observed errors to understand their underlying causes, such as first language interference or a lack of conceptual understanding. The findings revealed that misformation was the most dominant error type, accounting for 53.85% of all errors. This research provides valuable insights into the persistent challenges students face in mastering English grammar, particularly past tense forms, and aims to serve as a foundation for improving teaching strategies for writing recount texts.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease characterized by chronic inflammation and excessive lymphocyte activation, requiring accurate monitoring of disease activity. This study aimed to analyze the differences in lymphocyte levels between active and inactive SLE patients receiving methylprednisolone therapy. The methodology involved measuring lymphocyte counts from patients’ venous blood samples, followed by classification based on the MEX-SLEDAI score as an indicator of disease activity. Data were then analyzed to determine significant differences between the two groups. The results demonstrated that patients with active SLE had significantly lower lymphocyte counts (mean 838.35/μL) compared to inactive patients (mean 1957.65/μL). These findings indicate that a decrease in lymphocyte levels is closely associated with higher disease activity, suggesting that lymphocyte count may serve as a potential indicator of SLE activity. In conclusion, lymphocyte levels can be considered a useful parameter for assessing disease activity in SLE patients undergoing methylprednisolone therapy. This study provides valuable insight for clinical diagnosis and disease activity monitoring. Times New Roman 9 pt and single space. The abstract should contain the background, objectives, methodology, results, and conclusions. The abstract should contain background, objectives, methodology, results, and conclusions and be written in each opening paragraph. The abstract should not contain tables/images without including a citation. The use of abbreviations should be minimum except for units. Objectives and methodology are arranged in the form of past tense, while the results and conclusions in the form of simple present tense.

The study aimed to identify the relationship between speech characteristics and anxiety levels to identify psycholinguistic markers that can serve as diagnostic tools in psychotherapy practice. A sample of 160 participants was stratified by anxiety level (high, medium, low) using standardized methods (STAI, BAI). Quantitative analysis showed significant differences in the speech of the groups: participants with high anxiety used shorter sentences, were characterized by a lower level of lexical diversity, more frequent use of negatively colored vocabulary and the pronoun "I", and also used future tense forms less often. Correlation and regression analyses confirmed the close relationship of these speech indicators with anxiety levels, which explained up to 48% of the variation on the BAI scale. The results suggest that speech analysis can be a reliable indicator of anxiety levels and can be integrated into psychotherapy practice as an additional diagnostic tool. The resulting speech profile of a highly anxious individual-negative vocabulary, self-referentiality, cognitive simplification, and low future orientation-can be used to individualize psychotherapeutic interventions and monitor therapy dynamics. Practical applications include regular speech analysis, working with written texts, and integrating automated analysis systems into clinical and online environments. A promising direction is to expand the sample and test the cross-cultural validity of the resulting model.

The aim of this research is to identify the preferential tense forms and syntactic constructions of informing verbs in the indicative mood in Spanish. The paper examines the semantic and morphological features of the evidential speech verbs “decir” (to say), “informar” (to inform), “afirmar” (to affirm), “comunicar” (to communicate), introducing statements with direct and indirect quotation in Spanish-language discourse. The research is carried out on the material of the Spanish National Corpus CORPRES XXI. The paper presents an analysis of the frequency of use of these verbs in Spanish-speaking countries. The results of a comparative analysis of the selected informing verbs in condicional de rumor (“the conditional of rumor” – a type of verb tense/mood used to convey someone else’s opinion or statement, the authenticity of which depends on some condition), in futuro de conjetura (“the future of conjecture” – a type of verb tense/mood used to convey assumption and probability), as well as in impersonal constructions are presented. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the fact that the potential of informing verbs in Spanish as lexical means of expressing indirect evidentiality, verified on the basis of data from the Spanish National Corpus, has been determined. As a result of the research, it was found out that the verb “decir” is the most frequent and neutral verb introducing other people’s speech, and as an evidential marker is mostly used in impersonal constructions, as well as in condicional de rumor.

The Expression of Temporal Relations in German: A Discourse and Temporal Marker Analysis Summary The article examines the role of temporal markers in structuring the temporal framework of texts in the German language. It demonstrates the influence of semantic, syntactic, and aspectual factors on the selection of temporal conjunctions and prepositions. The polysemous use of various conjunctions and prepositions depending on context is explained, ensuring logical connections between events. The analysis shows that the compatibility of temporal markers with grammatical tense forms determines their semantic load. The correct selection of temporal markers is crucial for accurate text comprehension, translation, and stylistic analysis. Keywords: discursive marker, temporal marker, semantics, aspect, tense markers

This research examines the impact of the age of second language acquisition (AoA) on grammatical accuracy in Russian-English bilinguals, specifically addressing the distinction between Past Simple and Present Perfect tenses. These tenses present unique challenges for Russian speakers, as Russian employs a single past tense form, leading to frequent L1 transfer errors in English. Through a mixed-methods approach including a comprehensive literature review, participant background questionnaires, and grammaticality judgment tests the study identifies gaps in existing research on AoA effects in Russian-English bilingualism and proposes new experimental directions. Administered via the Edvibe platform, the experiment involved 13 participants (6 early bilinguals: AoA <10 years; 7 late bilinguals: AoA >10 years) completing a tailored course, Blogs Unlocked: Past and Perfect Tenses, with pre-, mid-, and post-tests. Results revealed that while early and late bilinguals did not significantly differ in final grammatical accuracy (p = 0.102), late bilinguals demonstrated statistically greater improvement between pre- and post-tests (p < 0.001 vs. p = 0.042 for early bilinguals), suggesting AoA correlates with the rate of grammatical precision enhancement. This underscores the complexity of bilingual language processing, with implications for pedagogical strategies targeting specific grammatical challenges in L2 learners. The study contributes to psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, and neurolinguistic discourse on bilingualism, advocating for further investigation into factors like language exposure and cognitive abilities. This research will be of particular interest to educators and curriculum designers developing grammar instruction for Russian-speaking learners of English.

The background of this research is centered on the writing text of students learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Eastern Indonesia, where students face challenges in expressing their ideas because of the lack of effective teaching methods. This study aims to improve EFL students' problem-solving text writing and express their idea by helping them develop ideas grounded in their personal experiences. To achieve this, the research focuses on analysing ideational meaning through transitivity, participants, processes, and circumstances, in Systemic Functional Linguistics, to know students’ ideas through writing. Qualitative and quantitative method were used to analyze the data. The main result adduces ideational meanings in material process represent problems and solutions, such as indifference, defection, negligence, abandonment, laziness, fatigue, breakthrough, hope, struggle, persistence, pride, achievement, determination, courage, and encouragement. Most frequently used participant is I, referring to most of these students and the problems and solutions they face and implement. The most widely used circumstances are time and accompaniment. This research result is different from the theory raised by Gerot and Wignell, which state that the most dominant circumstances and tense in expository text are time, cause and present. Additionally, past tense forms are observed in some clauses in the problem-solution texts. The theoretical contribution of this study is to apply SFL as a model of language use that use material processes to obtain ideational meaning as a function, while the practical contribution is to help students be more courageous in writing English and to express their ideas, experiences and goals more easily. The pedagogical contribution of this study is to apply SFL as a model and use descriptive language to examine how linguistic choices reflect social contexts and their functions in students' lives in advancing their learning.

This review article looks into some aspects of the origin, development and current state of the Komi-Perm language. The paper touches upon the origin of the ethnonym Komi-Perm, shows the sources of penetration of foreign language words into the language under study. The importance of imagery words in labeling sound and associative forms has been determined. The article briefly notes the ways of realizing the representations of space and time by grammatical means of the language: developed case and postpositional systems, grammatical forms of the past tense. The paper presents an attempt to explain how the Komi-Perm language has adapted to the absence of rather ordinary abstract words. Imagery and symbolism actively realized by highly motivated lexemes aredemonstrated on the image of a fly (gut), when set expressions and words are perceived by all KomiPerm language speakers clearly semantically without any comments and clarifications. The development of the modern Komi-Perm language is connected with the tendencies of word reduction, further development of the case system, changes in grammatical forms of adverbs and so on.

Features of Expressing the Present Tense in Riddles of the English and Azerbaijani Languages Summary Riddles, which are widespread genres of oral folk art, have arisen and formed in the literatures of different nations in their own unique way. They have been formed according to the customs, traditions, lifestyle and mental characteristics of each nation, and have been concentrated in different tense forms of the verb according to their expressive features. However, as a result of translation, sometimes differences in expression in the sense of time can arise. This article examines riddles in different tense forms of the verb in English and Azerbaijani, and it has been determined that present tense forms, which are expressed in short and figurative descriptions, predominate. Poetic means in riddles in the present tense form have been identified and analyzed comparatively in English and Azerbaijani. Key words: Azerbaijani language, English language, riddle, presenr simple, time expression features, folklore examples

This study aims to explore the relationship between students’ mastery of past tense and their ability to write about past experiences. A total of 40 eleventh-grade students participated in the research. Data were collected through two written assessments: a grammar test focusing on past tense usage and a writing task that required students to retell a story using appropriate tenses. The grammar test included multiple-choice questions and sentence transformation items, while the writing task offered four topics from which students chose one. The results of the grammar test revealed a mean score of 4.3, which falls into the “Poor” category. This indicates that students generally struggle with understanding and applying past tense forms correctly. On the other hand, the writing assessment showed a mean score of 6.9, classified as “Fairly Good.” This suggests that, despite limited grammar mastery, students were moderately successful in expressing ideas about past events in written form. To determine the strength of the correlation between the two variables, the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient was applied. The analysis resulted in an r-value of 0.497, indicating a moderate positive correlation between past tense mastery and writing performance. These findings highlight the importance of integrating targeted grammar instruction with writing practice to enhance students’ overall writing proficiency, particularly in expressing past experiences.

Relative tense is a phenomenon where the reference time of a clause is determined based on some context-dependent time, not necessarily the speech time. While relative tense can be observed with Japanese subordinate clauses, most previous studies have focused only on a single level of embedding, leaving cases of multiple embedding underexplored. Against this backdrop, this study investigates the temporal interpretations of multiply embedded relative clauses in Japanese. We report that a multiply embedded relative clause can receive a relative tense interpretation that depends on its nonimmediately higher clauses. We also show that this 'clause skipping' interpretation is constrained by the tense forms of the clauses. Based on these observations, we then develop a formal account of the temporal interpretations of Japanese relative clauses. Our account employs the notion of a time interval list, which enables us to derive the attested interpretations compositionally.