Temporal Scales Research Articles

Bridging spatial and temporal scales of developmental gene regulation.

Bridging spatial and temporal scales of developmental gene regulation.

Improved prediction of chlorophyll-a concentrations using advancing graph neural network variants.

Improved prediction of chlorophyll-a concentrations using advancing graph neural network variants.

Environmental factors drive differences in activity between sexes of a large marine predator.

Environmental factors drive differences in activity between sexes of a large marine predator.

How electrochemical sensors measure up to reference-grade nitrogen dioxide monitors across temporal scales.

How electrochemical sensors measure up to reference-grade nitrogen dioxide monitors across temporal scales.

Multiscale Skeleton-Based Temporal Action Segmentation Using Hierarchical Temporal Modeling and Prediction Ensemble.

Skeleton-based temporal action segmentation (TAS) decomposes untrimmed skeleton sequence into meaningful segments. The variance in temporal scale challenges the skeleton modeling network to seek a balance between over-segmentation and under-segmentation. Current methods often rely on parallel multiscale feature extractors and additional refinement modules to mitigate the multiscale issue, which brings significant computations and complexity. To address these issues, this article proposes multiscale skeleton-based TAS (MSTAS), consisting of temporal probability pyramid (TPP) and smoothed multiscale ensemble (SME). TPP represents each action as a collection of multiscale probability distributions using a U-shape hierarchical temporal pyramid. Subsequently, SME takes the average of distributions instead of deploying additional refinement stages to achieve action segmentation. Considering the over-confident issue that exists in each scale, SME incorporates a novel label smoothing phase to improve the probability distributions by dynamically calibrating the confidence of each scale. Experimental results on four public datasets show that the MSTAS achieves state-of-the-art performance with less computation overheads, such as +1.1% accuracy and +2.8% F1@0.5 on the challenging LARa dataset with 70% fewer parameters and 80% fewer GFLOPS. Benefiting from confidence calibration, the MSTAS efficiently utilizes more temporal scales while keeping better calibration for ambiguous action instances. Additionally, the U-shape pyramid demonstrates a strong compatibility with classical refinement module, enabling the efficient extraction of multiscale motion representations.

The methodological framework for DRIP: Drought representation index for CMIP model performance.

The methodological framework for DRIP: Drought representation index for CMIP model performance.

Analysis of the genetic diversity of the soybean rust pathogen Phakopsora pachyrhizi reveals two major evolutionary lineages.

Analysis of the genetic diversity of the soybean rust pathogen Phakopsora pachyrhizi reveals two major evolutionary lineages.

Attention in surgical phase recognition for endoscopic pituitary surgery: Insights from real-world data.

Attention in surgical phase recognition for endoscopic pituitary surgery: Insights from real-world data.

Cross temporal scale pig face recognition based on deep learning

Cross temporal scale pig face recognition based on deep learning

Characteristics of Carbon Sink and the Influencing Factors in Ngoring Lake, Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau

AbstractContinuous annual carbon dioxide (CO2) flux, encompassing ice‐covered periods, has been monitored in Ngoring Lake, the largest freshwater lake on the Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau (QTP). By utilizing continuous eddy system data, the characteristics and mechanisms influencing CO2 flux at various temporal scales in the lake were investigated. Findings revealed that Ngoring Lake was predominantly acting as a carbon sink year‐round. The average annual CO2 sink value was maximum in 2016, about −1.46 g C m−2 d−1. There were two CO2 absorption peaks in spring and autumn, respectively. The multi‐year average monthly mean CO2 absorption peaks occurred in April (−1.70 g C m−2 d−1) and October (−1.75 g C m−2 d−1), respectively. These peaks were associated with the freeze‐thaw process and were caused by the mixing process due to water cooling. The continuous warming during the ice‐covered period led to a high‐water temperature, and the maximum value reached 6°C. In spring, mixing occurred upon ice melt, and the water temperature at 2 m depth decreased rapidly to 4°C because it was about 5°C higher than the air temperature. In autumn, cooling and mixing were induced by decreasing air and water temperatures alongside strong wind. These cooling processes facilitated significant CO2 absorption. The CO2 absorption process was controlled by wind speed, lake ice, lake mixing and stratification.

URUGUAYAN NATIONWIDE BEACH REMOTE MONITORING INITIATIVE

Uruguayan coast is mainly constituted by sandy beaches, with an extension of approximately 700 km: 300 km corresponding to the Río de la Plata (RDP) estuary, and 400 km facing the south Atlantic Ocean. Sandy beaches are dynamic environments that change at different spatial and temporal scales, such as storm, seasonal and inter annual scales. The understanding of these dynamics is fundamental for the management of the coastal zone, where decision makers are constantly challenged when facing beach erosion and coastal flooding. As these problems become more pressing due to the rise in mean sea level caused by climate change, information on beach dynamics is essential for proposing successful adaptation strategies. Furthermore, since adaptation strategies will need to be reviewed periodically, it is essential to have operational beach monitoring systems. Here we describe the implementation of the system, the information generated so far, and the use that has been made of it for beach management and the proposal of climate change adaption measures.

Temporal Variability of the Trophic State and Its Relationship With Land Use and Occupation in Reservoirs Located in the Acaraú River Basin, Ceará, Brazil

Objective: The study aimed to analyze, over a temporal scale, the water quality of the main reservoirs located in the Acaraú River Basin, promoting an assessment of land use and occupation processes in surrounding areas. Theoreticl Framework: The theoretical framework adopted is based on the premise that water is a limited natural resource, essential for environmental balance and indispensable for the daily activities of societies. Brazil is considered a country richly endowed with natural resources, standing out for its significant availability of 12–13% of the world’s freshwater. Method: The methodology was based on data from FUNCEME (Ceará Foundation for Meteorology and Water Resources) over the past four years, focusing on seven reservoirs. The Trophic State Index was determined, revealing that all reservoirs, over the years, showed trophic conditions outside the standard parameters. Predominantly, the reservoirs were characterized by Eutrophic, Mesotrophic, and even Hypereutrophic conditions. Results and Discussion: The results clearly demonstrate that the communities benefiting from social technologies participated in their development and implementation processes, contributing suggestions based on field experiences. Research Implications: The findings provide valuable insights for territorial planning, particularly in reservoir areas that meet the basic needs of surrounding communities.

NON-STATIONARY PARAMETERS ON EQUILIBRIUM-BASED SHORELINE EVOLUTION MODELS

Equilibrium-Based Shoreline Evolution Models (EBSEM) are computationally efficient tools for simulating beach response to environmental conditions, such as hydrodynamic forcings. Thus, they are valuable to understand the footprint of longshore and cross-shore sediment transport processes on shoreline rotation and breathing at several temporal scales. Despite its simplicity, EBSEM are parametric models that rely on calibration. Existing EBSEM applications in literature have traditionally used constant in time and space calibration parameters to forcing conditions, which restricts their ability to capture shoreline change signals to changing morphodynamic behavior. Therefore, calibrating these models with non- stationary parameters might be crucial to enhance predictability of multi-timescale shoreline variations (Antolínez et al. 2019).

Enhancing Flood Risk Management: A Review on Numerical Modelling of Past Flood Events

Recent scientific literature has consistently highlighted a significant increase in both the frequency and intensity of flood events, primarily attributed to the effects of climate change. Projections suggest that this trend will likely intensify in the coming decades. In this context, enhancing our understanding of flooding dynamics becomes not only necessary but urgent. A critical component of this advancement lies in the numerical analysis of historical flood events, which provides valuable insights into flood behaviour across extended temporal and spatial scales. This approach enables two key outcomes: a significant improvement in conventional methods for estimating return periods and a reduction in the uncertainties associated with historical flood events by simulating multiple plausible scenarios to identify the most likely one. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the scientific literature focused on the numerical simulation and reconstruction of past flood events. Two main conclusions emerge from this review: First, the temporal scope of the studies is notably wide, covering events ranging from glacial periods to those occurring in the mid-20th century. Second, there exists a pronounced spatial imbalance in the geographical distribution of these studies, with certain regions significantly underrepresented. This review provides a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners working in flood risk assessment and hydrological modelling. By consolidating existing knowledge, it supports the development and refinement of decision-support tools aimed at improving mitigation strategies to reduce the impact of flooding on both populations and infrastructure.

A COMPREHENSIVE ONE-LINE MODEL FOR SHORELINE EVOLUTION ESTIMATION

The prediction of sandy shoreline evolution, over both short/medium- and long-term temporal scales for small and large spatial scales, remains a challenge for coastal researchers and engineers. Basically, the configuration of sandy beaches, which are characterized by high complexity, are influenced by waves-sediment interaction. Coastal zones, which have a significant environmental, tourist, and economic value, are constantly exposed to natural (e.g., waves, tides, climate change) and human (e.g., over-exploitation by the construction of railways, roads, and private buildings close to the beach) pressures. One- line models, with a particular focus on the study of curved shorelines, and the development of coastal shoreline features, such as spits, cups, and rhythmic shoreline undulations (Ashton and Murray, 2006a, b; Kaergaard and Fredsoe, 2013a; Hurst et al., 2015; Robinet et al., 2018, 2020) have been developed. Other one-line models (Vitousek et al., 2017; Antolinez et al., 2019) have explored the impact of the cross-shore sediment transport on long- term shoreline dynamics, accounting not only for river inputs, beach nourishments, sand-bypassing (Pelnard- Considère, 1956), but also cross-shore transport due to wave action (Yates et al., 2009) and water level variation due to sea level rise (Bruun,1962), storm surge, and monthly sea level anomalies. In this context, the work described hereinafter is aimed to provide the scientific and technical communities with a comprehensive one-line tool, covering hydrodynamics and morphodynamics processes.

PARTICLE ACCELERATION AS A DIAGNOSTIC FOR WAVE BRAKING IN THE SURF ZONE

Surf zone hydrodynamics is characterized by the dynamic interplay of various spatial and temporal scales related to different mechanical processes taking place across the surf zone. Among all the wave processes in the surf zone, wave breaking, and the associated mass transport and energy dissipation is the most significant. Wave breaking not only exerts significant forces on coastal structures but also triggers nearshore currents, and sediment transport. While our understanding of wave breaking has improved in recent decades, the precise mechanism triggering wave breaking remains unresolved. This study focuses on utilizing the Lagrangian downward acceleration of fluid particles near the wavecrest as a dynamic criterion for identification of breaking in shallow water waves. Using a dedicated stereo-imaging system in a 2019 field campaign on the island of Sylt off the coast of Germany, we were able to track tracer particles during various wave conditions (Bjørnestad et al. 2021). In the present work, the data are analyzed with the goal of testing the dynamic breaking criterion.

A Whole System Diversity - Ecosystem Function Framework for Conservation and Restoration in an Arid Mediterranean Ecosystem

The Anthropocene, marked by significant environmental transformation, underscores the intricate relationships among geodiversity, biodiversity, and social diversity in shaping ecosystem functions. This study introduces the concept of Whole System Diversity (WSD) as a framework for integrating these three dimensions to understand, sustain, and restore essential ecosystem functions. This perspective elaborates on a central scientific question in ecology: the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functions. It emphasizes that maintaining biodiversity across all organizational levels—genetic, species, and functional—is critical for ecosystem stability, resilience, biological productivity, and ecosystem services. Geodiversity, encompassing Earth's abiotic components, lays the physical foundation for ecosystems. Variations in geological features, hydrological processes, and climatic conditions shape habitats and regulate critical functions such as nutrient cycling and water availability. Biodiversity, defined by the variety of life forms and their genetic and functional diversity, drives ecological processes, resilience, and adaptability. Social diversity reflects human interactions with ecosystems, shaped by cultural, economic, and political dynamics. The integration of these diversity types highlights their reciprocal relationships and feedback loops (Fig. 1) across multiple spatial and temporal scales. Geodiversity fosters habitats for diverse species while being influenced by biotic activity such as soil formation and vegetation cover. Biodiversity interacts with social diversity, as social diversity, expressed through cultural practices and economic livelihoods, impact species distributions and ecosystem services. Together, these interactions drive primary production, nutrient cycling, and energy flow. The study examines terraced watershed management in the Negev Desert as a case study exemplifying WSD. These ancient systems, adapted over millennia to arid conditions, illustrate the synergistic interplay of geodiversity, biodiversity, and social diversity. Terraced landscapes modulate hydrology and soil quality, providing microhabitats for species and enabling sustainable agriculture in water-limited environments. Human societies, from Byzantine farmers to modern conservationists, have shaped and been shaped by these systems, demonstrating the enduring impact of social dynamics on ecosystem function. Through this case study, we elucidate how ancient practices enhanced geodiversity by creating terraces to capture runoff, supporting biodiversity and enabling diverse cultural and economic activities. Biodiversity, in turn, shaped the physical environment, with plant and animal communities influencing soil properties and hydrology. Social diversity, through evolving practices such as agriculture, grazing, and conservation, has continually adapted these systems to changing environmental and societal needs. We observe these systems through history to understand how the interaction of the three diversity types changes over time, along with their output (e.g., biological productivity or ecosystem services) through intentional human activity and system dynamics. The WSD framework offers significant implications for ecosystem research and management. It advances the understanding of ecosystems as holistic systems, highlighting the need for interdisciplinary approaches to capture the complex interactions among geological, biological, and social factors. The framework aligns with long-term socio-ecological research, providing insights into the historical and ongoing processes that shape ecosystems. It also informs policy and practice, emphasizing the importance of integrating WSD principles into conservation, restoration, and sustainable development. This conceptual model has broader applications, serving as a roadmap for studying and managing ecosystems in the Anthropocene. By recognizing the dynamic interplay of geodiversity, biodiversity, and social diversity, the WSD framework contributes to a deeper understanding of ecosystem functions and offers pathways for enhancing resilience and sustainability in the face of global environmental change. The WSD framework underscores the urgency of holistic ecosystem science, particularly in human-impacted regions. In the Anthropocene, where human influence is pervasive, integrating geodiversity, biodiversity, and social diversity is essential for understanding and managing ecosystems. By bridging disciplinary divides, WSD provides a comprehensive approach to studying Earth system processes, informing long-term ecosystem research and management. This framework strengthens our ability to navigate ecological complexities and build resilience in the face of global change.

Welcome to the first eLTER Science Conference

In an era of unprecedented environmental change, the need for long-term, integrated ecosystem research has never been more urgent. The first eLTER Science Conference brings together a vibrant community of researchers, site and platform coordinators, and visionaries dedicated to understanding and safeguarding the complex systems that sustain life on Earth. This proceeding includes all contributions to the first eLTER Science Conference in June 2025 in Tampere, Finland. The Conference is a pivotal moment in our shared journey toward deeper understanding, collaboration, and stewardship of our planet's complex socio-ecological systems. It marks an important milestone in the scientific work towards the Whole Systems Approach that is the unique foundation of the eLTER RI, addressing the Earth system at different spatial and temporal scales in order to answer many of the burning scientific and societal questions of our time. In the Anthropocene, environmental research is ever more challenged to develop a holistic approach for understanding the compounded impacts of the multiple stressors on our ecosystems, including, e.g., climate change, biodiversity loss, soil degradation, pollution, and unsustainable resource use. No scientific community can address these challenges in isolation from others. Therefore, the eLTER Science Conference is a unique opportunity to hear and see how different communities and disciplines gather forces to study not only the different spheres (geo-, hydro-, bio-, atmo-, and socio-sphere), but especially the linkages amongst them on the habitable skin of the Earth. The high-level scientific and social programme of the Conference encourages diversity of approaches, exchange between generations of scientists, and inclusivity in the spirit of promoting inter- and trans-disciplinarity. The presentations highlight the key elements of eLTER’s vision: advancing integrated, long-term environmental research, promoting interdisciplinary collaboration, and supporting policy-relevant science for sustainability. The workshops offer a chance for hands-on engagement with various practical subjects while also exploring themes through artistic perspectives. The Conference week is composed of high-level keynote lectures, oral and poster sessions, inspirational exhibitions, workshops, and field trips, relevant for researchers from Europe and globally. The transdisciplinary dialogue is forming an important, cross-cutting element to the Conference program. Altogether 335 participants from 44 countries and 226 institutions will contribute their latest findings to the programme. The 25 prominent Keynotes will address their own research themes in a broad and comprehensive manner. Early career researchers (83) ensure fresh perspectives and energy to continue the ongoing renewal of the scientific enterprise. Interestingly, a common thread runs through many of the sessions: the word ‘Integration’ features in the titles of seven of them. This highlights a strong, shared ambition among participants to deepen collaboration not just within their own disciplines, but across the wider research landscape. It underscores a collective push toward developing harmonised methods and tools that can support more impactful, high-quality science. At the same time, it sends a clear message to the broader environmental science community: eLTER is open for collaboration and eager to connect. Beyond the rich scientific agenda, the eLTER Science Conference offers a diverse and engaging social programme, including Conference dinner on a charming Viikinsaari island and four guided excursions, each offering a unique perspective on Finland's diverse ecosystems and long-term ecological research initiatives, and providing participants with immersive experiences into Finland's ecological research and conservation efforts. The Scientific Committee ensured the high-level scientific content of the Conference. The Organising Committee was led by Jaana Bäck and Jerome Gaillardet, and included Paulina Rajewicz, Nina Hobbhahn, Alexandra Tzvetkova, and Michael Mirtl; in addition, Benat Olascoaga Gracia, Allan Souza, Janne Korhonen, and Syed Ashraful Alam and the 12 conference assistants contributed to making the Conference a success. With this Proceedings, we welcome all authors and other attendees to the first eLTER Science Conference, a landmark event in shaping the future of integrated ecosystem, critical zone, and socio-ecological research across Europe and beyond. We thank all contributors and participants for their valuable insights and commitment, and we look forward to continuing this journey — united in eLTER’s vision for a more sustainable and resilient future. The conference is organised by the EU-funded eLTER PLUS Advanced Community project (Grant Agreement No. 871128) and supported financially by the University of Helsinki Fig. 1, the Federation of Finnish Learned Societies Fig. 2, Metsämiesten Säätiö Foundation Fig. 3, and the Atmosphere and Climate Competence Center (ACCCFig. 4) Flagship of the Research Council of Finland.

Opportunities and Challenges in Combining Optical Sensing and Epidemiological Modelling.

Plant diseases impair yield and quality of crops and threaten the health of natural plant communities. Epidemiological models can predict disease and inform management. However, data are scarce, since traditional methods to measure plant diseases are resource intensive and this often limits model performance. Optical sensing offers a methodology to acquire detailed data on plant diseases across various spatial and temporal scales. Key technologies include multispectral, hyperspectral and thermal imaging, and light detection and ranging; the associated sensors can be installed on ground-based platforms, uncrewed aerial vehicles, aeroplanes and satellites. However, despite enormous potential for synergy, optical sensing and epidemiological modelling have rarely been integrated. To address this gap, we first review the state-of-the-art to develop a common language accessible to both research communities. We then explore the opportunities and challenges in combining optical sensing with epidemiological modelling. We discuss how optical sensing can inform epidemiological modelling by improving model selection and parameterisation and providing accurate maps of host plants. Epidemiological modelling can inform optical sensing by boosting measurement accuracy, improving data interpretation and optimising sensor deployment. We consider outstanding challenges in: A) identifying particular diseases; B) data availability, quality and resolution, C) linking optical sensing and epidemiological modelling, and D) emerging diseases. We conclude with recommendations to motivate and shape research and practice in both fields. Among other suggestions, we propose to standardise methods and protocols for optical sensing of plant health and develop open access databases including both optical sensing data and epidemiological models to foster cross-disciplinary work.

Interacting with environmental data through web applications: case studies from the Biodiversity Digital Twin

The Biodiversity Digital Twin (BioDT) project aims to develop a comprehensive digital representation of biodiversity, focusing primarily on terrestrial ecosystems. Through a series of prototype Digital Twins (pDTs), the project seeks to empower citizens, researchers, and policymakers to interact with complex environmental data in real-time. This work presents a case study of two pDTs developed within the BioDT initiative: the Invasive Alien Species (IAS) pDT and the Real-time Bird Monitoring (RTBM) pDT. These prototypes integrate a variety of environmental datasets, including climate data and species occurrence information, to model and simulate biodiversity patterns under different stressors and scenarios. The web applications designed for these pDTs leverage the power of R Shiny, a popular tool for building interactive web-based data visualizations. One of the primary challenges in developing these applications is handling the large, complex datasets while ensuring the user experience remains fluid and responsive. This requires an optimized data streaming system that can handle the intricate layers of data without overloading the web application’s performance. Efficient design strategies for real-time data integration are therefore crucial for achieving smooth interaction with the environmental data, ensuring users can explore and understand biodiversity dynamics across varying spatial and temporal scales. While the full impact of these applications on public engagement and decision-making is still under development, the goal is to facilitate a deeper understanding of how stressors such as climate change or invasive species affect biodiversity. The web applications will empower citizens to explore data on species distribution and gain insights into how different environmental scenarios can shape the future of biodiversity across the continent. By providing accessible, interactive tools, the BioDT initiative aims to support informed decision-making processes related to biodiversity conservation and environmental policy.