Soil C:N:P relationships are widely used indicators of nutrient balance, organic matter quality, and biogeochemical functioning in forest ecosystems. However, their organization across structural phases and soil horizons in undisturbed temperate forests remains insufficiently documented. This study examined vertical and structural-phase variation in soil C:N:P stoichiometry within an old-growth Fagus orientalis forest the Hyrcanian region. We quantified C:N, C:P, and N:P ratios in paired organic and mineral soil samples, with stoichiometric relationships interpreted based on total C and N and Olsen-extractable (plant-available) P, across the initial, optimal, and decay structural phases of this contiguous old-growth stand. Within this forest, C:N and C:P ratios showed phase-associated differences in the organic horizon, generally declining from the initial to the decay phase, whereas N:P remained comparatively stable. In the mineral horizon, phase-associated differences were also observed for C:N and C:P; however, the magnitude of variation was smaller, and patterns were less consistent than in the organic layer. Strong vertical contrasts were observed, with consistently higher C:N and C:P ratios in the organic layer and comparatively conservative N:P patterns across horizons. Overall, vertical differentiation between soil horizons represented a stronger axis of variation than structural-phase differentiation within this old-growth system. These findings provide a high-resolution stoichiometric characterization of a long-protected Hyrcanian beech forest and may serve as a baseline for future comparisons in similare temperate beech forest ecosystems under low-disturbance conditions.

Ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF) play a crucial role in temperate forest ecosystems, facilitating enhanced nutrient uptake and increased plant resilience. Laccaria trichodermophora, an EMF commonly associated with juvenile pine species, has recently emerged as a model organism for studying fungal development and symbiotic interactions. Submerged liquid culture of this species has shown promise for producing high volumes of vegetative EMF inoculum. In this context, the carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio in culture media is a crucial factor that affects fungal metabolism, particularly the production of storage carbohydrates such as trehalose and mannitol. These storage molecules are linked to the infectivity of pathogenic fungi and symbionts. However, it remains unclear how the storage metabolic status influences the infectivity of the EMF inoculum and whether these storage molecules can serve as indicators of infectivity. Here, we show that while trehalose accumulation does not affect infectivity, intracellular mannitol concentration, modulated by the C:N ratio, positively correlates with inoculum infectivity. Our findings indicate that intracellular mannitol plays a pivotal role in enhancing the infective ability of EMF inoculum, aiding effective colonization of host roots during the early stages of symbiosis establishment. Considering the above, liquid cultures of ectomycorrhizal fungi under conditions that favor intracellular mannitol concentration produce a high-quality inoculant with higher mycorrhizal infectivity. These findings have significant implications for biotechnological production of mycorrhizal inoculants intended for reforestation and sustainable forestry.

Rising human-caused nitrogen (N) deposition and increased rainfall variability threaten the capacity of temperate forests to sequester carbon. However, the combined effects of N enrichment and moisture changes on total soil respiration (Rs), including its autotrophic (Ra) and heterotrophic (Rh) components, remain poorly understood, especially in northern China’s warm-temperate forests. To explore this, a factorial field experiment was conducted at the Beijing Yanshan Earth Critical Zone National Research Station in Huairou District, Beijing. The experiment involved N addition (50 kg N ha−1 yr−1 as urea [CO(NH2)2]) and precipitation manipulation (±50% of ambient throughfall) during the 2024 growing season. Six treatments were implemented: control (CK), nitrogen addition (NA), 50% increased precipitation (W+50%), 50% decreased precipitation (W−50%), nitrogen addition with increased precipitation (NW+50%), and nitrogen addition with decreased precipitation (NW−50%). Under natural rainfall conditions, N addition increased Rs (+11.8%; p < 0.05). However, the effects of N largely depended on water availability: with increased rainfall, N addition significantly boosted Rs, Rh, and Ra by promoting fine root biomass and accelerating litter decomposition; under reduced rainfall, N addition still increased Rs, Rh, and Ra compared to drought alone (NW−50% vs. W−50%), though the extent of stimulation was considerably lower than under elevated precipitation, indicating that water availability influences the strength of N effects on forest soil respiration. Structural equation modelling (SEM; χ2/df = 1.8, RMSEA = 0.040, CFI = 0.97) revealed that water availability was a key mediator of the interaction between N addition and precipitation. These findings enhance understanding of how nitrogen supply and water availability interact in temperate forest soils, though further validation across other forest types and over longer periods remains necessary.

Abstract Angiosperm tree species play a central role in temperate forest ecosystems, providing critical ecological and economic services, yet their physiological functioning and responses to environmental stress remain insufficiently understood compared to economically important conifer species. Current methods for studying angiosperm tree functioning such as physiological monitoring or wood formation analyses are often invasive, resource-demanding or difficult to scale, limiting our ability to integrate structural and functional perspectives over time. By contrast, wood anatomical data are abundant and relatively easy to collect across individuals, years, and sites, offering a powerful opportunity to infer underlying physiological processes. Here, we synthesised current understanding of drivers of wood formation and resulting wood anatomy in European temperate angiosperms. We identified key knowledge gaps in wood formation, wood anatomy and tree physiology and outline interdisciplinary methodological advances that could assist the integration of structural and functional data. Such integration will be essential for developing more robust and predictive frameworks of angiosperm tree growth under changing environmental conditions.

Necrophagous Diptera larvae are usually the earliest carrion-visiting necrophages in terrestrial ecosystems. However, despite the significant contribution of dipteran larvae to the natural decomposition process of large mammals in the ecosystem, which are thought to have a significant impact on ecosystem function and stability, there are still many unknowns regarding the function of maggots during actual decomposition of carcasses in the field. This study investigates the role of necrophagous dipteran larvae in the decomposition of sika deer (Cervus nippon) carcasses in a temperate forest ecosystem while excluding vertebrate scavengers. We evaluated the effects of ambient internal temperatures and body weight on carcass decomposition. A total of 12 deer carcasses were monitored for weight loss and both temperature changes from September 2021 to June 2023. The findings indicate that the average time for a deer carcass to decompose to 30% of its original weight was approximately 14 days, significantly influenced by seasonal temperature variations and initial carcass weight. Internal temperatures within carcasses were observed to exceed ambient temperatures by 10°C-30°C. Furthermore, the shorter the duration after carcass placement for the body's internal temperature to rise significantly above the air temperature, the faster the body decomposes. These results support our hypothesis that metabolic heat generated by maggot masses enhances larval activity and accelerates decomposition. This study also reveals that while Diptera larvae can significantly contribute to decomposition under optimal conditions, vertebrate scavengers play an essential role in the overall decomposition process, particularly in colder months.

Abstract Mycorrhizal association networks, which represent community-level bitrophic interactions between plants and fungi, consistently exhibit distinct topological patterns across ecosystems. Clarifying their elevation-related dynamics is crucial for predicting the effects of climate change on plant community assembly and ecosystem resilience. On the basis of a systematic sampling of plant roots across ten elevational belts in an oak-dominated forest, we investigated the effects of elevation on mycorrhizal network specialization as well as the relative contributions of climate, plant, and soil characteristics. Our results revealed that (1) plant diversity decreased and mycorrhizal fungal diversity increased as the elevation increased. (2) Ten mycorrhizal network displayed elevated specialization (H’2) at mid-elevation zones and subalpine treelines and exhibited a hollow-shaped variation in terms of the standard effect size of H’2 (SES(H’2)) and species specialization of plants (SES(d’)), indicating that the high H’2 at subalpine treelines was mainly caused by passive sampling. (3) The SES(H’2) exhibited significantly positive relationships with plant diversity, litter thickness, and soil moisture, whereas soil parameters had negligible effects. (4) Fungal species specialization (SES(d’)) increased along with increases in the plant diversity, litter thickness, plant crown density, and soil moisture, implying that plant and climate filters governed fungal partner selection. Our findings indicate that the plant diversity and climate condition—rather than edaphic factors—serves as determinants of mycorrhizal network specialization in temperate forest ecosystems.

Passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) provides new opportunities for assessing bird abundance and habitat preferences, yet its performance relative to traditional point-count surveys (PCO) remains insufficiently tested, especially for quiet and inconspicuous forest passerines. We compared the vocal activity and habitat associations of the Goldcrest Regulus regulus and Firecrest Regulus ignicapilla in a temperate forest ecosystem using PAM-derived and PCO-based indices. Across 30 monitoring points in the Romincka Forest (Poland), PAM yielded &gt;33,000 recorded songs and revealed strong spatial variation in both species. Vocal activity measures obtained from PAM correlated positively with PCO detections and territories, confirming the reliability of PAM as a complementary abundance indicator. Goldcrest vocal activity showed a strong positive association with the proportion of coniferous trees—especially spruce—and with local tree-species richness, reflecting the species’ affinity for structurally diverse conifer-dominated stands. In contrast, Firecrest abundance was unrelated to forest structure in PAM data, while PCO detections indicated avoidance of pine and lower activity in species-rich stands. No significant relationship with stand age was observed for either species. The weak interspecific correlations in activity parameters highlight their distinct ecological niches despite overlapping ranges. Based on PCO Goldcrests proved to be more abundant, with a territorial ratio of 3:2 compared to Firecrests. Our study demonstrates that PAM effectively captures variation in abundance and habitat selectivity of both Regulus species and provides a scalable, efficient complement to traditional surveys in temperate forest ecosystems.

Abstract The study of bark morphology reveals significant although not absolute relationships between bark types, tree species, and their environmental conditions. This paper aims to review the inter- and intraspecific ecological and evolutionary drivers that seem to have shaped the macromorphological features of bark, especially in temperate forest ecosystems and especially in Europe. Extensive literature research shows that various factors influence bark thickness, structure, color, and morphology, including solar radiation, climate, adaptation to various disturbance regimes, site conditions and biotic factors, reflecting together long-term selective pressures during evolution. Bark’s simultaneous multiple functions and its ontogenetic changes often complicate the identification of the individual selective agents of the adaptive mechanisms and morphologies. An evolutionary perspective can clarify why certain bark types are common in specific environments, how some traits persist as secondary functions, or why diverse bark forms coexist not only in the same site, but also in various ontogenetic stages and positions of the same individuals. Intraspecific variation shaped by both genetic and environmental influences often results in phenotypic plasticity, enhancing species’ environmental and age/size related adaptability. We suggest that further research examine current and historical climate, site, and biotic conditions to understand their influence on bark structure and morphology.

This study investigates the influence of three deciduous tree species: small-leaved linden (Tilia cordata), common beech (Fagus sylvatica), and sessile oak (Quercus petraea) on soil microbial diversity in temperate forest ecosystems. Conducted on loess soils in southern Poland, the research clarifies species-specific effects on soil microbiota and chemical properties, providing insights into tree-microbe-soil interactions in forest environments. Soil samples were collected from monospecific stands and analysed using next-generation sequencing (NGS). Fungal and bacterial DNA was extracted, and libraries targeting the ITS1 (fungi) and 16S rRNA V3-V4 (bacteria) regions were sequenced using the Illumina MiSeq platform. Microbial communities were evaluated in relation to soil pH, nutrient content, and exchangeable cations. Linden soils had the highest pH (5.1-7.0) and calcium content (18.9 cmol(+)·kg⁻¹), while beech soils were the most acidic (pH 3.8-5.7) with the lowest calcium (8.0 cmol(+)·kg⁻¹). Fungal communities were dominated by Basidiomycota, Ascomycota, and Mortierellomycota, with varying proportions across species. Bacterial diversity was highest in linden and oak stands. Dominant bacterial phyla included Actinobacteriota, Proteobacteria, and Acidobacteriota. Each tree species hosted a distinct microbial community, reflecting its impact on soil properties and microbial structure. Tree species significantly shape soil microbial diversity and chemistry. Incorporating microbial data into forest management may enhance soil function, biodiversity conservation, and ecosystem resilience. Broader spatial sampling is recommended to generalize findings.

In forest ecosystems, rhizodeposition can lead to significant differences in the availability of soil carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) between rhizosphere and bulk soils. Soil stoichiometry affects microbial and enzyme nutrient content and determines the abundance and composition of microbes and thus regulates microbial carbon use efficiency (CUE). However, how soil stoichiometry-particularly its variation between the rhizosphere and bulk soil-regulates microbial CUE by shaping microbial biomass, extracellular enzyme stoichiometry, and community composition remains insufficiently quantified. Here, through the C:N, C:P, and N:P ratios for available soil nutrients, microbial biomass, and extracellular enzyme activities-(β-1,4-glucosidase (BG), β-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminodase (NAG), leucine aminopeptidase (LAP), and acid phosphatase (ACP))-and the composition and activity of microbial communities (based on sequencing of bacterial 16S rRNA and fungal ITS genes) in the rhizosphere and bulk soils of five temperate forest ecosystems in northeastern China, we aimed to unravel their integrated effects on microbial CUE. Results indicated that soil C, N, and P and their stoichiometry, microbial community composition, and microbial CUE were significantly different between rhizosphere and bulk soils among all tree species. The disproportionate variation in soil nutrient pools between the rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere regions has led to a stoichiometric imbalance. There was higher microbial CUE in the rhizosphere soil than that in the bulk soil among all tree species. However, the effect pathways of tree species on microbial CUE in the rhizosphere and bulk soils differed. The structural equation model (SEM) further suggested that tree species affected microbial CUE through distinct pathways in different soil compartments. In the rhizosphere, the effect was directly driven by available nutrient stoichiometry. In bulk soil, it was jointly mediated by both available nutrients and microbial biomass stoichiometry. These findings demonstrate that root rhizodeposition shapes microbial carbon cycling by altering soil stoichiometric imbalances, which can strengthen the current understanding of plant-microbe-soil interactions in temperate forests.

The Index of Biodiversity Potential (IBP) assesses the forest stand’s capacity to host species based on 10 structural, compositional, and environmental factors. Widely used by French forest managers, its reliance on in-situ surveys limits large-scale applications. While LiDAR-derived metrics can finely describe forest structure, their relationship with the IBP remains unexplored. We aimed to study these relationships with the IBP management factors, some of which reflect forest structure such as the number of large trees and vertical strata. Using a dataset of 1536 IBP plots across France, we computed LiDAR-derived structural metrics along with other variables (e.g., topographic, spectral). We then analysed their statistical relationships with the IBP factors, and calibrated predictive models using both regression and classification machine learning algorithms. Finally, we mapped the IBP management score for the first time over a 890 km 2 area within the forests of the Ariege Pyrenees Regional Natural Park (France). The results revealed strong correlations between the IBP management score, its factors, and remote sensing metrics. LiDAR-derived metrics describing canopy height and vertical complexity were particularly important for prediction, as well as biomass and topographic metrics. Our best model, with an RMSE of 5.24 ± 0.63, predicts IBP within 5 points—a threshold beyond which variations reflect actual changes in species richness within the forest stand. These findings emphasise the relevance of remote sensing data, in particular LiDAR, for describing structural field metrics. They demonstrate that remote sensing offers a viable approach for large-scale IBP assessment. • Remote sensing data demonstrate their potential for large-scale IBP assessment. • LiDAR structural metrics strongly correlate with the IBP management factors. • Canopy height, heterogeneity and biomass are key structural traits linked to the IBP. • The IBP is mapped across all forests of the Ariege Natural Park, French Pyrenees.

Silvicultural treatments in temperate forest ecosystems can influence tree species composition and diversity, depending on both management intensity and site-specific environmental conditions. Among these conditions, slope orientation plays an important role by regulating microclimatic factors such as solar radiation and soil moisture. Therefore, this study evaluated the effect of slope orientation on tree species composition and diversity in a temperate forest under the Mexican Method for the Management of Irregular Forests (MMOBI), which applies selective harvesting of mature trees. An ecological analysis was conducted using the Importance Value Index (IVI), Margalef species richness index (DMG), and Shannon diversity index (H′). The IVI showed that the genus Pinus dominated north-, south-, west-facing slopes and the zenith area, with values of 49.67%, 57.58%, 50.41%, and 44.16%, respectively, whereas Quercus dominated east-facing slopes (70.58%). Shannon diversity values ranged from 0.47 to 1.02, with the highest value observed on north-facing slopes and the lowest on west-facing slopes. Margalef richness values ranged from 0.56 to 0.80, with the lowest richness recorded on south-facing slopes, which differed significantly from the other orientations. These results indicate that tree species composition and diversity vary according to slope orientation, reflecting the combined influence of forest harvesting practices and microclimatic variation associated with topography. The findings highlight the importance of considering slope orientation as an ecological factor in forest management and planning in temperate forests.

ABSTRACT Developing cost‐effective monitoring tools that cover a broad range of taxonomic groups is urgently needed to implement effective conservation strategies. One promising approach involves collecting genetic samples from hematophagous, sarcophagous, or coprophagous invertebrates, followed by amplification and sequencing of residual vertebrate DNA to reveal vertebrate diversity. In invertebrate‐derived DNA (iDNA) monitoring, species‐specific life histories, physiological traits, and behavioral characteristics introduce distinct biases, depending on the invertebrate taxon used. In this study, we assessed terrestrial vertebrate diversity by simultaneously employing iDNA derived from leeches and flies, together with camera trapping, in a species‐poor temperate forest ecosystem in Yakushima, Japan. Our aim was to evaluate the detection biases of each method and to identify optimal combinations of monitoring tools. We detected a greater number of vertebrate species using fly‐derived iDNA (15 species) than using leech‐derived iDNA (5 species). Fly‐derived iDNA detected mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians, whereas leech‐derived iDNA detected only mammals and amphibians. This difference was partly due to the greater ease of collecting flies compared with leeches, which resulted in different sample sizes. However, even when accounting for sample size, fly‐derived iDNA captured a broader range of species. Camera trapping detected a comparable number of mammal species to fly‐derived iDNA but provided lower taxonomic resolution. Notably, we detected all non‐volant terrestrial mammal species known to inhabit in this ecosystem of low species diversity by combining fly‐derived iDNA with camera trapping. However, these methods were less effective in detecting avian and reptilian diversity.

BackgroundBiological invasions pose a major threat to the ecological stability of the Xiaoxing'an Mountains region, a significant temperate forest ecosystem in north-eastern China. Although effective management and risk assessment are urgently needed, substantial data gaps remain regarding the precise spatial distribution and quantitative abundance of invasive plant species in this area. This dataset aims to address this gap by systematically documenting species occurrences and abundance metrics.New informationThis dataset documents the results of the first systematic survey of invasive plants conducted in the Xiaoxing'an Mountains region of Heilongjiang Province, China, spanning 2022 to 2023. Constructed strictly according to the Darwin Core (DwC) standard, the sampling event dataset comprises 4408 unique sampling events and 4773 invasive plant occurrence records (covering 37 species). The most frequently recorded species were Erigeroncanadensis (1723 records), followed by Trifoliumrepens (1157 records). Each record is provided with precise geographic coordinates and complete taxonomic identification and the majority of species records include percent coverage information, establishing a solid foundation for regional ecological risk assessment, species distribution modelling and long-term conservation management planning.

ABSTRACTA study on the long‐term ecological impacts of specialized behavior can provide valuable insights for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management, particularly in the context of climate change. The endangered primate Rhinopithecus bieti in temperate forest ecosystems relies primarily on the lichen Usnea longissima as its fallback food source. To investigate whether this specialized diet sustains forest health through trophic interactions, our study employed a three‐tiered approach: (1) We first examined the impact of U. longissima on trees by comparing the health of branches covered with and without lichen. Findings reveal U. longissima exhibits harm to host trees, as lichen‐covered branches displayed significantly higher rates of dieback. (2) Using habitats with varying extinction timelines of R. bieti, we quantified how the presence of R. bieti contributes to reducing U. longissima biomass. Results showed lichen biomass tripled in habitats where the species vanished 40 years ago compared to occupied habitats. (3) We finally used controlled artificial experiments that demonstrated that R. bieti's feeding activities may enhance U. longissima dispersal and growth. Our findings suggest that R. bieti may function as a natural regulator of lichen biomass, potentially helping to prevent overgrowth that could destabilize forest health. Notably, the monkeys' foraging behavior may not only control lichen proliferation but also help to promote its regeneration. This study underscores that restoring R. bieti populations would synergistically benefit both U. longissima viability and forest resilience, advocating for integrated conservation strategies that preserve specialized ecological interactions. Due to the fact that specialized diet species face severe survival challenges in the context of climate and environmental changes, future efforts should be focused on their ecological adaptation mechanisms and improving sustainable management strategies.

Red wood ants (RWA) of the Formica rufa group are keystone species and ecosystem engineers that play a geomorphologically important but underestimated role in the boreal and temperate forest ecosystems of Europe. As mound-building species, they dig galleries in loose materials to form their underground nests and create meter-scale landforms (i.e., mounds or anthills) above the soil surface corresponding to the epigeal part of their nests. Mainly composed of organic matter, but also containing a mineral fraction, the mounds serve as microhabitats for many associated species (i.e., myrmecophiles), so the conservation of these biogenic landforms is relevant for a whole range of other taxa. The aim of this zoogeomorphological study is to examine the spatial distribution and temporal evolution of RWA mounds in a temperate forest landscape of Northwestern France through a 5-year monitoring study (2020-2024). The methodological protocol combines exhaustive GPS mapping of anthills on a forest area of 62 ha, and monitoring of 13 strip transects with morphometric measurements of mounds achieved each year at the same period. Main findings show that (i) the densities of RWA mounds vary greatly over space, mainly depending on forest stand types (with a preference for mixed-conifer stands) and slope gradient (with a preference for flat or low-gradient topography); (ii) anthills are dynamic landforms that change rapidly in terms of location, shape, size and volumes, mainly in response to interannual climate variability and anthropogenic disturbances. Future work will focus on deciphering the possible relationships between RWA mound distribution, geogenic gases and tectonic faults, and on conducting a systematic inventory of myrmecophilous organisms in and around large nests, which may reveal unexpected biodiversity associated with RWA mounds.

The contribution of forest floors to the ecosystem budget of volatile terpenoids is still not fully understood. We performed seasonal measurements in a mixed temperate forest to elucidate the effects of tree species (Douglas fir vs. European beech) and abiotic drivers on soil-atmosphere terpenoid exchange. In addition, soil cores were studied under controlled conditions to characterize the effect of ambient air terpenoid concentrations on exchange rates of terpenoids and their enantiomers. Moreover, the role of litter layer and microbial activity on exchange of important terpenoids enantiomers was tested. Soil under Douglas fir emitted monoterpenes at rates up to 3 μg m -2 h -1 , whereas soil under European beech released terpenes at much lower rates and occasionally even took up these volatiles. Exchange followed seasonal patterns with low fluxes during winter, increasing emissions during springtime and reduced exchange rates in summer. Flux rates weakly correlated with soil temperature, soil moisture and ambient terpenoid concentrations. In isolated soil cores emission of terpenoids was enantiomer specific, which was not observed for terpenoid uptake. Increasing ambient concentrations caused a switch from emission to an uptake of terpenoids at compound specific compensation points ranging between 10 and 250 ppt. More detailed analyses indicated that the litter layer and not the mineral soil is the main contributor for soil terpenoid exchange, and that microbial activity plays an important role for terpenoid uptake but not for emission. In conclusion, our results highlight a strong contribution of the forest floor to the ecosystem budget of terpenoids. For temperate forests tree-species and related litter determine terpenoid emission from the forest floor, whereas terpenoid uptake is driven by soil microbial activity. The balance of exchange is modulated by soil temperature and ambient terpenoid concentrations. It remains to be elucidated whether such relationships apply to forests in other biomes. • Terpenoid emission from soil depends on tree-species and is controlled by soil temperature, soil moisture and ambient terpenoid concentrations • The litter layer is a strong contributor for terpenoid exchange, whereas the mineral soil is rather inactive • Soil microorganisms are strongly involved in terpenoid uptake but to a less degree for terpenoid emission

Forests represent essential global carbon stocks; however, their storage capacity is diminishing due to deforestation, degradation, and land-use changes driven by anthropogenic activities. The soil organic carbon store (SOC) is the most critical reservoir, accounting for over 40% of the total carbon stored in forests. This study assesses the SOC storage capacity of forest ecosystems compared to other land uses in the Texcoco Forest Region, State of Mexico. Vegetation was classified into three phases: Phase 1, primary or undisturbed land use and vegetation (LUV); Phase 2, modified LUVs with disturbances such as fires, pests, or logging; and Phase 3, LUVs derived from anthropogenic activities, including agriculture, forest plantations, and fruit tree plantations. The largest SOC reserve was found in sites with the least anthropogenic disturbance. Forest ecosystems contained up to three times more SOC than Phase 3 land uses. Coniferous forests constituted the largest SOC reservoirs, demonstrating greater efficiency than both agricultural and oak ecosystems, which exhibited comparatively low SOC stocks.

Abstract Contraception has traditionally been used on domesticated and captive animals, but it has also found increasing application in locally overabundant wildlife species. Different immunocontraceptives are available and they vary in their mechanisms, effectiveness, and potential side-effects. In this study, the porcine zona pellucida (pZP)-based vaccine SpayVac ® was administered to red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) in the Bavarian Forest National Park and its contraceptive effectiveness was assessed for one year under field conditions. Twenty red deer were vaccinated with a single intramuscular injection, with 27 additional animals serving as controls. All 47 deer were fitted with GPS collars. Reproduction was tracked by observing calves using camera trap surveys and by measuring the concentrations of fecal progesterone metabolites to determine pregnancy. SpayVac ® reduced fertility to 11% in vaccinated deer compared to a fertility rate of 86% in control animals for one year. Camera traps and/or progesterone metabolites aided in evaluating the reproductive status of 85% of the studied female red deer. Specifically, reproductive status was determined in 37 of 46 individuals using camera traps, and pregnancy in 19 of 46 females using progesterone metabolites. In all but one deer, the same results were obtained with the two methods. Our study demonstrates the 1-year efficacy of SpayVac ® immunocontraception in red deer. It also describes methods for the improved determination of pregnancy status and calf presence in wildlife, using camera traps and fecal progesterone metabolites. Studies evaluating the long-term contraceptive effectiveness and the effects of fertility control on population structure and behavior are still needed.

Spores offer the most accessible diagnostic characters for the early-divergent Lycopodiaceae. We quantified eight morphometric traits—equivalent diameter, polar length, equatorial width, projected area, perimeter, and aspect ratio—in a balanced sample of 50 spores from each of six Central European taxa (Diphasiastrum alpinum, D. tristachyum, D. complanatum, Lycopodium annotinum, L. clavatum, and Huperzia selago) collected in the Białowieża Primeval Forest. Integrated light-microscope and scanning-electron-microscope imaging revealed three discrete wall-ornamentation syndromes (reticulate, verrucate, and granulose) that parallel the quantitative gradients. Principal component analysis showed that a single, collinear size axis accounts for 79% of variance, situating H. selago at the large-diameter extreme (mean: 37μm) and the three Diphasiastrum species at the small-diameter pole (mean: 32–33μm). One-way ANOVA (p&lt;10−31) and PERMANOVA (R2=0.52) confirmed decisive interspecific separation that mirrors published molecular phylogenies, underscoring a strong phylogenetic signal in spore form. While trait baselines are taxonomically stable, moderate microhabitat-driven shifts indicate limited ecophenotypic plasticity. The resulting high-resolution benchmark refines palynological identification, enables rapid spore-based bioindication of demographic stress, and strengthens conservation monitoring in relic temperate forest ecosystems.