Team Sport Environments Research Articles

Shining a light on the unseen athletes: stories of exclusion and resistance among gay athletes in professional team sports

PurposeThis study uncovers the challenges and coping mechanisms related to stigma and discrimination experienced by gay professional team sport athletes.Design/methodology/approachUtilizing interpretive phenomenological analysis, this study recruited six gay athletes in professional team sports. Data were collected through virtual one-on-one semi-structured interviews, along with field notes and reflexive journaling, and were thematically analyzed.FindingsThe first theme highlights the discrimination and marginalization experienced by gay athletes in professional team sports, as well as the perceived differences between these athletes and their heterosexual counterparts. The second theme includes anecdotes illustrating their experiences of exclusion, along with counter-stories that resist marginalization. The last theme comprises stories that underscore the lack of acceptance and advocacy, emphasizing the awareness education aimed at making the sporting realm more inclusive.Research limitations/implicationsDespite the extensive recruiting efforts for this study, numerous sports and countries remain unexplored. Follow-up studies are required to fill this gap. As this study was initiated, additional research is needed to provide information on athletes who are still in the closet. Cross-comparisons between gay athletes and their heterosexual teammates can help bridge the gap in perspectives.Practical implicationsParticipants emphasized collective efforts in creating inclusive and welcoming environments for gay athletes, including anti-discrimination policies related to language use, showers and relocation adjustments.Social implicationsParticipants have put forth concrete recommendations for enhancing inclusivity within team sport environments and society at large, including proposals for early educational initiatives within the school systems.Originality/valueThis is the first empirical study that focuses on the experiences of gay professional team sport athletes.

Understanding coach-athlete conflict: an ethnodrama to illustrate conflict in elite sport

ABSTRACT The purpose of this article is to gain greater understanding of interpersonal conflict between managers and players within an elite team sport environment. We consider conflict from multiple perspectives, and disseminate findings in an accessible way to encourage those involved in team sport to engage with the material. Through the adoption of a narrative inquiry approach, autobiographical extracts recalling incidences of conflict from a manager (Sir Alex Ferguson) and certain key players (e.g. David Beckham) have been analysed using reflexive thematic analysis, with finding presented through the mean of ethnodrama scenes. Such scenes were developed as a dialogue between Ferguson and his players, to illustrate the episodes of conflict through the eyes of both the players and Ferguson, with creative non-fiction techniques used to further bring the script to life. These scripts reflect the differences in the interpretation of the same conflict situations and allow the reader to reflect on the determinants of these conflicts, and the resulting consequences. It is hoped that the ethnodrama enhances further understanding of leader-athlete conflict in elite sport, through illustrating examples of conflict from different perspectives. In addition, the findings provide a stimulus for those working in sports teams to reflect on their own experiences of conflict and consider how such conflict might be prevented or managed.

Leader-member exchange and turnover intention among collegiate student-athletes: the mediating role of psychological empowerment and the moderating role of psychological contract breach in competitive team sport environments

ABSTRACT Research question In the extant literature, little is known about how athletes’ perception of leader-member exchange with their coach affects their negative consequences (e.g. turnover intention). Therefore, this study examined the relationship between leader-member exchange and turnover intention among collegiate student-athletes. Moreover, the current study investigated the mediating effect of psychological empowerment and the moderating effect of psychological contract breach. Research methods A total of 220 student-athletes were recruited from four major universities in South Korea. CFA and SEM analyses were conducted using Amos 20.0. Also, frequency analysis, reliability analysis, correlation, and regression analysis were employed using SPSS 20.0. Results and findings This study found a negative influence of leader-member exchange on student-athletes’ turnover intention and significant mediating effects of two dimensions of psychological empowerment (i.e. meaning and self-determination) on the relationship. Furthermore, the results suggested that psychological contract breach negatively moderated the relationships between leader-member exchange and three dimensions of psychological empowerment (i.e. meaning, competence, and impact). However, psychological contract breach did not moderate the relationship between leader-member exchange and turnover intention. Implications This study confirms the significant association between the quality of the coach-athlete relationship and student-athletes’ intention to leave. Moreover, student-athletes’ psychological sense of gaining power and control, or psychological empowerment may enhance their self-esteem in the team and reduce their intention to quit. In addition, coaches and collegiate athletics administrators should pay attention to the psychological contracts between student-athletes and their team as it may weaken the role of leader-member exchange in strengthening their psychological states.

‘We wear dresses, we look pretty’: The feminization and heterosexualization of netball spaces and bodies

Since its introduction in New Zealand during the early 20th century, netball has been considered ‘unambiguously for women’ and it continues to represent one of the few team sport environments not characterized by the interests and participation of men. Yet, despite a long history as the ‘good game for girls’, there is an ongoing and complex relationship between netball and heteronormative femininity in New Zealand that has gone largely unexplored among contemporary studies of sport. In this paper, I take inspiration from French philosopher and social theorist Henri Lefebvre’s theory of the production of space in order to examine this relationship, and particularly the geography of social relations in netball. Drawing upon insights obtained via historical and media analysis, observations and interviews with 16 women players, I demonstrate how netball is (re)produced as feminized and heterosexualized space, and thus, how this sport works to inscribe women’s moving bodies with a dominant, normative and culturally valued version of femininity. To conclude, I discuss how the findings of this paper and Lefebvre’s spatial theory may be useful for thinking further about the gendered nature of this sport and women’s everyday lived experiences.

Internal training load and its longitudinal relationship with seasonal player wellness in elite professional soccer

Monitoring internal training load has been extensively used and described within team sport environments, however when compared to internal physiological measures such as heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE), the literature is sparse. The primary aim of this investigation study was to assess differences of playing position on ITL, session-RPE and wellness across two different training microcycles (1 vs. 2 competitive games), in addition with examining the relationship between ITL and Hooper's Index across an entire season. Thirty-five professional soccer players from the Portuguese premier league participated in the study (25.7±5.0years; 182.3±6.4cm; 79.1±7.0kg). Analysis of variance revealed higher values of DOMS (Means(M): 3.33 vs. 3.10; p=0.001; effect Size (ES)=0.087), fatigue (M: 3.18 vs. 2.99; p=0.001; ES=0.060) and HI (M: 11.85 vs. 11.56; p=0.045; ES=0.034) in 2-game weeks compared with 1-game weeks. Correlation between ITL and HI levels found significant negative correlations between ITL and DOMS (ρ=−0.156), ITL and sleep (ρ=−0.109), ITL and fatigue (ρ=−0.225), ITL and stress (ρ=−0.188), and ITL and HI (ρ=−0.238) in 2-game weeks. Results from 1-game microcycle only highlighted negative correlations between ITL and stress (ρ=−0.080). It was concluded from the study that greater fatigue potential, muscle soreness, stress and ITL was significantly more apparent within a 2-game microcycle. As a result, care should be taken when planning the lead into and out of a 2-game fixture microcycle highlighting key specific recovery strategies to damped the increased stress effect. Additionally, the potential utilization of squad rotation strategies may be a positive approach with aim of managing the fatigue effect.

Adapting a behavioral coaching framework for mental toughness development

ABSTRACTMental Toughness (MT) development is an important consideration when seeking to increase and maintain high levels of performance in sport settings. There has been limited research on effective methods to develop MT, and an opportunity exists to incorporate other developmental frameworks in psychology that have shown a positive effect on performance. In this article, we detail a coach-targeted education program aimed at increasing the frequency of desirable mentally tough behaviors (MTb) in elite athletes, which draws on recent work on MTb and an established behavioral coaching model (i.e., GROW) as the guiding framework. The theoretical foundations of behavioral coaching and relationship with improving performance are briefly discussed. We then describe how we applied the behavioral coaching model in a professional team sport environment during the course of a competitive season, including learning points and future considerations for those practitioners looking to develop MT in sporting contexts.

Monitoring Fatigue Status in Elite Team-Sport Athletes: Implications for Practice.

The increase in competition demands in elite team sports over recent years has prompted much attention from researchers and practitioners to the monitoring of adaptation and fatigue in athletes. Monitoring fatigue and gaining an understanding of athlete status may also provide insights and beneficial information pertaining to player availability, injury, and illness risk. Traditional methods used to quantify recovery and fatigue in team sports, such as maximal physical-performance assessments, may not be feasible to detect variations in fatigue status throughout competitive periods. Faster, simpler, and nonexhaustive tests such as athlete self-report measures, autonomic nervous system response via heart-rate-derived indices, and to a lesser extent, jump protocols may serve as promising tools to quantify and establish fatigue status in elite team-sport athletes. The robust rationalization and precise detection of a meaningful fluctuation in these measures are of paramount importance for practitioners working alongside athletes and coaches on a daily basis. There are various methods for arriving at a minimal clinically important difference, but these have been rarely adopted by sport scientists and practitioners. The implementation of appropriate, reliable, and sensitive measures of fatigue can provide important information to key stakeholders in team-sport environments. Future research is required to investigate the sensitivity of these tools to fundamental indicators such as performance, injury, and illness.

Collaborative Evaluation of Individual and Team Performance in Training and Match Environments Using the Coach Logic Online Platform

Sports coaches’ commonly have a limited appreciation of pedagogy (Light & Evans, 2013). Furthermore, investigations concerning coaches’ use of performance analysis for athlete learning are rare (Groom, Cushion, & Nelson, 2011). Complex Learning Theory (CLT) advocates nonlinear and sociocultural educative approaches (Light, 2013). Considering this digital age, the aim of this investigation was to examine coaches’ use of Coach Logic—an online video-based coaching platform. Seven Head Coaches (five rugby union and two field hockey) were interviewed individually whilst their coaching staff and players contributed to group interviews. Results confirmed a priori themes of active, social and interpretive as derived from CLT. Analysis of these findings established that online coaching platforms have the capacity to facilitate the active involvement of athletes in the process of performance analysis. From a social perspective, online coaching platforms have helped to develop a positive team environment and also interpersonal working. Good practice was evident relating to interpretive approaches; however, the potential for coaches to embrace more radical conceptualisations of knowledge acquisition is stark. Online coaching platforms have a place in contemporary team sport environments and can contribute to athlete learning and other important aspects of team culture and cohesion.

Red, Amber, or Green? Athlete Monitoring in Team Sport: The Need for Decision-Support Systems.

Decision-support systems are used in team sport for a variety of purposes including evaluating individual performance and informing athlete selection. A particularly common form of decision support is the traffic-light system, where color coding is used to indicate a given status of an athlete with respect to performance or training availability. However, despite relatively widespread use, there remains a lack of standardization with respect to how traffic-light systems are operationalized. This paper addresses a range of pertinent issues for practitioners relating to the practice of traffic-light monitoring in team sports. Specifically, the types and formats of data incorporated in such systems are discussed, along with the various analysis approaches available. Considerations relating to the visualization and communication of results to key stakeholders in the team-sport environment are also presented. In order for the efficacy of traffic-light systems to be improved, future iterations should look to incorporate the recommendations made here.

The sociopolitics of sport, physical education, and school health in the United States

ABSTRACTEvidence from global sources indicate that physical education (PE) has an integral role to play in the development of behaviours supporting lifetime physical activity. However, PE programmes in many countries fall short of accomplishing this charge. The marginality of PE in comparison to school-based athletic programmes, and inter-role conflict arising from concurrent performance of teaching and coaching roles contribute to this phenomenon. Grounded in role socialisation theory and drawing primarily from the United States context, we explore the social construction of PE teaching and athletic coaching roles in school environments. Different priorities and time demands can lead to conflict, and teachers/coaches often prioritise the role for which they are rewarded and held most accountable. These reward and accountability structures favour coaching in many schools, leading teachers/coaches to focus on coaching to the detriment of their teaching performance. Formal accountability and reward structures are reinforced by administrators, colleagues, children and community members who praise coaching prowess, but fail to acknowledge successes in teaching environments. Since only a small percentage of school children engage in interscholastic athletics, the complex relationship between teaching and coaching can inhibit physical activity and public health agendas that seek to enhance children’s health through school-based programming. The content of PE at the secondary level, which replicates team sport environments and reinforces athletic achievement, also marginalises children who are not interested in traditional forms of sport. It is against this backdrop that we discuss opportunities and challenges for the future of PE as a public health intervention.

Individual and contextual factors in ethical decision making: A case study of the most significant doping scandal in Canadian university sports history

This case study is written for instructors of sport management courses focused on ethics and integrity-related issues in team environments. The case highlights the real world example of the University of Waterloo Warriors varsity football that, in 2010, experienced the most significant doping scandal in Canadian university sports history, with a total of nine anti-doping rule violations asserted through the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport. This case study also incorporates the findings of an independent review of the Waterloo football program in relation to the use of banned substances, and includes first-hand accounts from Bob Copeland who was the acting director of athletics. These findings are then interpreted in the context of relevant theory related to performance enhancing drugs (PEDs) use. Along with the findings of this review, which included interviews with athletes, coaches, and administrators, the case study provides important insights into ethical decision making processes and leadership structures in a team sport environment. Particular emphasis is placed on the role that individual cognitive antecedents and contextual organizational factors (i.e., policies, leadership, ethical climate, and infrastructure) play in ethical decision-making processes.

Organizational socialization in team sport environments.

Socialization tactics are often used to manage initial group member interactions in a way that facilitates transition experiences. Although this process is heavily researched in organizational contexts, we sought to extend this line of inquiry to sport by examining the nature of socialization tactics used to integrate new members into existing teams. Interviews were conducted with 12 coaches and 12 athletes from several Canadian Interuniversity Sport teams to explore the nature of socialization and the circumstances underscoring why certain approaches are taken over others. A key process involved establishing congruency of role expectations between incoming athletes and group leaders, and socialization processes balanced expectations of conformity with encouragement of individual personalities within the group. A conceptual basis to examine socialization into team sport environments is discussed in relation to the extant organizational theories, and the practical implications of delineating sport socialization tactics are forwarded.

Sleep and Recovery in Team Sport: Current Sleep-Related Issues Facing Professional Team-Sport Athletes.

While the effects of sleep loss on performance have previously been reviewed, the effects of disturbed sleep on recovery after exercise are less reported. Specifically, the interaction between sleep and physiological and psychological recovery in team-sport athletes is not well understood. Accordingly, the aim of the current review was to examine the current evidence on the potential role sleep may play in postexercise recovery, with a tailored focus on professional team-sport athletes. Recent studies show that team-sport athletes are at high risk of poor sleep during and after competition. Although limited published data are available, these athletes also appear particularly susceptible to reductions in both sleep quality and sleep duration after night competition and periods of heavy training. However, studies examining the relationship between sleep and recovery in such situations are lacking. Indeed, further observational sleep studies in team-sport athletes are required to confirm these concerns. Naps, sleep extension, and sleep-hygiene practices appear advantageous to performance; however, future proof-of-concept studies are now required to determine the efficacy of these interventions on postexercise recovery. Moreover, more research is required to understand how sleep interacts with numerous recovery responses in team-sport environments. This is pertinent given the regularity with which these teams encounter challenging scenarios during the course of a season. Therefore, this review examines the factors that compromise sleep during a season and after competition and discusses strategies that may help improve sleep in team-sport athletes.

Small-sided games in team sports training: a brief review.

Small-sided games (SSGs) incorporating skills, sport-specific movements, at intensities sufficient to promote aerobic adaptations, are being increasingly implemented in professional team sport environments. Small-sided games are often employed by coaches based on the premise that the greatest training benefits occur when training simulates the specific movement patterns and physiological demands of the sport. At present, there is relatively little information regarding how SSG can best be used to improve physical capacities and technical and tactical skills in team sports. It is possible that with some modifications (e.g., number of players, pitch size, coach encouragement, and wrestling), such games may be physiologically beneficial for athletes with relatively high initial aerobic fitness levels. For instance, it has been shown that 3-a-side soccer SSG resulted in higher intensity (i.e., greater overall distance, less jogging and walking, higher heart rate, and more tackling, dribbling, goal attempts, and passes) than 5-a-side SSG. Likewise, when player numbers were kept constant, a larger playing area increased the intensity of the SSG with a smaller playing area having the opposite effect. It has also been demonstrated that energy expenditure was similar between badminton and volleyball courts, but lower than that obtained in a basketball court. Moreover, it has been demonstrated in rugby that wrestling can increase the physical demands of SSG. Consistent coach encouragement can also increase training intensity, although most rule changes have trivial or no effect on exercise intensity. Further research is required to examine the optimal periodization strategies of SSG training for the long-term development of physiological capacity, technical skill, and tactical proficiency, while also minimizing the associated risk of injuries.

Short-term heat acclimation training improves physical performance: a systematic review, and exploration of physiological adaptations and application for team sports.

Studies have demonstrated that longer-term heat acclimation training (≥8 heat exposures) improves physical performance. The physiological adaptations gained through short-term heat acclimation (STHA) training suggest that physical performance can be enhanced within a brief timeframe. The aim of this systematic review was to determine if STHA training (≤7 heat exposures) can improve physical performance in healthy adults. MEDLINE, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus™ databases were searched for available literature. Studies were included if they met the following criteria: STHA intervention, performance measure outcome, apparently healthy participants, adult participants (≥18 years of age), primary data, and human participants. A modified McMaster critical appraisal tool determined the level of bias in each included study. Eight papers met the inclusion criteria. Studies varied from having a low to a high risk of bias. The review identified aerobic-based tests of performance benefit from STHA training. Peak anaerobic power efforts have not been demonstrated to improve. At the review level, this systematic review did not include tolerance time exercise tests; however, certain professions may be interested in this type of exercise (e.g. fire-fighters). At the outcome level, the review was limited by the moderate level of bias that exists in the field. Only two randomized controlled trials were included. Furthermore, a limited number of studies could be identified (eight), and only one of these articles focused on women participants. The review identified that aerobic-based tests of performance benefit from STHA training. This is possibly through a number of cardiovascular, thermoregulatory, and metabolic adaptations improving the perception of effort and fatigue through a reduction in anaerobic energy release and elevation of the anaerobic threshold. These results should be viewed with caution due to the level of available evidence, and the limited number of papers that met the inclusion criteria of the review. STHA training can be applied in the team-sport environment during a range of instances within the competitive season. A mixed high-intensity protocol may only require five sessions with a duration of 60 min to potentially improve aerobic-based performance in trained athletes.

Between-Session Reliability of Four Hop Tests and the Agility T-Test

The purposes of this study were firstly to investigate whether learning affects were present in the administration of 4 hop tests and the Agility T-test and secondly to assess the between-session reliability of these tests. Twenty-two recreational athletes (11 women: age 22.3 ± 3.7 years, height 167.7 ± 6.2 cm, weight 59.2 ± 6.9 kg and 11 men: age 22.8 ± 3.1 years, height 179.8 ± 4 cm, weight 79.6 ± 10 kg) took part in the study. The subjects performed 6 repetitions of each hop test and 4 repetitions of the Agility T-test once a week over a period of 3 weeks. Distances were normalized to leg length and presented as a percentage value for the single, triple and crossover hop. Results showed that there were significant differences in scores between genders and that learning affects were present in all tests. Intraclass correlation coefficients ranged from 0.76 to 0.92 for the hop tests and 0.82 to 0.96 for the Agility T-test. The results indicated that the hop and Agility T-tests are reliable tests for use with subjects in a clinical or team sport environment. The error measurement statistics presented could be of help to practitioners to determine whether changes in individuals' scores in the hop and Agility T-tests are because of a true change in performance or measurement error. Of most importance was the fact that all subjects achieved at least 90% limb symmetry index on all 4 hop tests. Therefore, we recommend that a minimum limb symmetry value of 90%, rather than previously recommended 85%, should be adopted during rehabilitation and conditioning.

Perceptions of Emotional Climate Among Injured Athletes

The present study adopted a qualitative, exploratory approach to describe the underlying emotional climate among injured athletes within team sport environments. Nine elite athletes undergoing long-term injury rehabilitation (LTIR) participated in semi-structured interviews to describe their LTIR experience. A general inductive analysis extracted three higher-order themes: (a) emotional trauma, (b) emotional climate, and (c) emotional acting. Athletes reported experiencing emotional trauma throughout LTIR. To maintain in-group norms, they described engaging in avoidance behaviors and reported suppressing negative affect for fear of negative evaluation. They also reported frequently controlling emotions in public using acting strategies. Athletes perceived these emotionally inhibitive behaviors as encouraged within their team environment. These results have important implications for the identification and treatment of emotionally destructive behaviors that could potentially delay an athlete’s psychological rehabilitation from athletic injury.

Physical activity leisure‐time participation of boys with developmental coordination disorder

Physical activity leisure‐time participation of boys with developmental coordination disorder

Role Ambiguity and Intra‐Team Communication in Interdependent Sport Teams

This study explored relationships between perceptions of intra‐team communication and role ambiguity within an interdependent team sport environment. Participants were 116 intercollegiate‐level team sport athletes (M age = 20.6 years). For males, the intra‐team communication dimension of acceptance was found to predict the majority of role ambiguity dimensions for both performance contexts of offense and defense (.09 ≤ R2adj. ≤ .16). However, limited support for this relationship was found for females, as acceptance communication predicted only one role ambiguity dimension (evaluation of role performance on defense). These findings have implications for applied practice in terms of reducing group members’ perceptions of role ambiguity in interdependent team sport.