Taxonomic Effort Research Articles

Response to Comments on “Can We Name Earth’s Species Before They Go Extinct?”

Mora et al. disputed that most species will be discovered before they go extinct, but not our main recommendations to accelerate species' discoveries. We show that our conclusions would be unaltered by discoveries of more microscopic species and reinforce our estimates of species description and extinction rates, that taxonomic effort has never been greater, and that there are 2 to 8 million species on Earth.

Robert A. Stebbins, The Committed Reader: Reading for Utility, Pleasure, and Fulfillment in the Twenty-First Century

Robert A. Stebbins, The Committed Reader: Reading Utility, Pleasure, and Fulfillment in the Twenty-First Century. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2013, 143 pp., $40.00 paper (9780-8108-8596-7). I was at once intrigued by the title of Robert Stebbins' The Committed Reader, especially having received the book review in the midst of reading undergraduate final exams. The full title, suggesting a focus on the various types of reading we engage in and encounter in the 21st century, deepened my interest. After all, most of what we sociologists do involves the varieties of reading included in the subtitle: our research and teaching spread across reading utility, pleasure, and fulfilment; we strive to teach our students how to go beyond the mere Google-style of reading to engage with texts; and our plans sabbatical almost always, if unofficially, include finally reading for pleasure. It is unfortunate, then, that the lead of the title regarding the committed reader ends up disappearing in this work, leaving it more encyclopaedic in its approach to reading and readership than committed. Stebbins' approach in this work derives from a combination of library and information studies and the application of his own leisure perspective. That perspective, which starts from a definition of leisure as uncoerced, contextually framed activity engaged in during free time, which people want to do and, using their abilities and resources, actually do in either a satisfying or a fulfilling way (or both) (p. 24), is then opened up to classify three approaches to leisure activity (casual serious pursuits, or project-based leisure). After briefly addressing casual and project-based forms of Stebbins goes on to break down the category of serious pursuits into leisure, with three subcategories (amateur, volunteer, and hobbyist), and devotee work. The rest of the work of this book reflects the application of Stebbins' serious leisure perspective to the contact points between a variety of sociological factors and the types of reading mentioned in the title. So, instance, Stebbins' analysis of pleasure reading engages with a variety of purposes reading, including entertainment, imaginative play, as a trigger conversation, sensory stimulation, relaxation, and information or knowledge. Included in the discussion of each of these purposes are a range of sociological touch points, including the classification of forms of fiction and nonfiction pleasurable reading materials, the roles of entertainment and edutainment in society, and the social-psychological and societal benefits of pleasurable reading. Most of the data that provides the basis the analysis here is drawn from either governmental surveys and censuses or from a wide range of secondary research in the sociology of culture and library and information studies areas. The approach to the three other forms of reading proceeds in a similar manner. It should be noted that I would call Stebbins' serious leisure perspective taxonomic rather than phenomenological one very important reason--this work is oriented more to the identification of various types and constitutive elements of action (in this case, reading) rather than the subjective experience of those actional forms. This work reads more akin to a Weberian approach, a la his analysis of the ideal-types of social action, or the work of Diderot and the Encyclopedists, rather than approaching its topic in a manner closer to Merleau-Ponty or Schutz. It is precisely in this approach that I believe both the strength and the weakness of Stebbins' work lie. Its strength is this taxonomic effort. For readers who are interested in such a breakdown of the various approaches to the act of reading and their sociological and social-psychological touchpoints, this work will be a very useful contribution to their libraries. The intersection of Stebbins' serious leisure perspective and library and information studies will also be of interest to LIS scholars, as it could present a useful guide understanding and analyzing the approaches readers bring to bear on the act of reading and, to extrapolate wildly, of potentially reorganizing institutional and informational resources so as to meet the needs of readers more effectively. …

Effects of offshore tuna farming on benthic assemblages in the Eastern Mediterranean

AEI Aquaculture Environment Interactions Contact the journal Facebook Twitter RSS Mailing List Subscribe to our mailing list via Mailchimp HomeLatest VolumeAbout the JournalEditorsTheme Sections AEI 4:41-51 (2013) - DOI: https://doi.org/10.3354/aei00071 Effects of offshore tuna farming on benthic assemblages in the Eastern Mediterranean Manolis Moraitis1, Nafsika Papageorgiou1, Panagiotis D. Dimitriou1, Antonis Petrou2, Ioannis Karakassis1,* 1Marine Ecology Laboratory, Department of Biology, University of Crete, PO Box 2208, 71409 Heraklion, Crete, Greece 2AP Marine Environmental Consultancy Ltd., PO Box 26728, 1647 Nicosia, Cyprus *Corresponding author. Email: karakassis@biology.uoc.gr ABSTRACT: The spatial effects of 2 tuna farms on the benthic community were investigated in the Eastern Mediterranean during the fattening period. The impact on benthic fauna was assessed in the vicinity of the fish farms (beneath and at various distances from the cages) using a variety of benthic indicators used for the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD). There was a general consensus that most of the samples (95%) were acceptable, i.e. of ‘good’ or ‘high’ ecological status. The biotic indices were also compared between 2 different mesh sizes, total (resulting from the sum of the fractions of 1 and 0.5 mm mesh fractions) and 1 mm mesh, in order to assess the variability of the results. The indicators showed the same pattern between the 2 different sieve mesh sizes. The variability in the ecological status assigned by each indicator was also examined among the replicates taken from each station. Our results showed that one replicate is not sufficient for monitoring purposes and we suggest obtaining more replicates, while using indicators requiring less taxonomic effort for sample processing. Neither fish farms had a significant impact on benthic communities, due mainly to the exposed nature of the study site. KEY WORDS: Tuna farming · Aquaculture impact · Benthic indicators · Benthic communities · Sieve mesh size · Replicate variability Full text in pdf format PreviousNextCite this article as: Moraitis M, Papageorgiou N, Dimitriou PD, Petrou A, Karakassis I (2013) Effects of offshore tuna farming on benthic assemblages in the Eastern Mediterranean. Aquacult Environ Interact 4:41-51. https://doi.org/10.3354/aei00071 Export citation RSS - Facebook - Tweet - linkedIn Cited by Published in AEI Vol. 4, No. 1. Online publication date: June 18, 2013 Print ISSN: 1869-215X; Online ISSN: 1869-7534 Copyright © 2013 Inter-Research.

More Taxonomists Describing Significantly Fewer Species per Unit Effort May Indicate That Most Species Have Been Discovered

Recent studies show that there are more taxonomists describing species in recent decades than before. However, whether the rate of increase in number of taxonomists is greater than the rate of new species description has been questioned. We found a statistically significant decline in the proportion of species being described per number of taxonomists (i.e., authors of recent species descriptions) during the past century for (i) families of insects that had been stated not to show this trend and (ii) a sample of over 0.5 million marine, terrestrial, and freshwater species. We suggest that this decreased “catch” of species per taxonomic effort, despite scientists’ greater ability to explore and sample habitats, means it is getting harder to discover new species and supports recent studies suggesting that

Diversity of terrestrial Enchytraeidae (Oligochaeta) in Latin America: Current knowledge and future research potential

This article reviews the current knowledge on terrestrial enchytraeid diversity in Latin America and it outlines the research potential that this group offers. Enchytraeids occur worldwide in all soils with sufficient moisture, oxygen and nutrient supply, but knowledge on their diversity and functioning in the tropics is practically non-existent, except in Latin America. Here, taxonomic efforts and research projects have led to the knowledge of currently 62 terrestrial or semi-aquatic species. Abundance of enchytraeids could be determined at the species level, and differences in the ecological behaviour of species were detected concerning factors such as soil type and land use. Especially South America harbours a rich and idiosyncratic enchytraeid fauna, dominated by genera or species absent or rare in other regions of the world, which is interesting from the phylogenetic point of view. However, only a minute fraction of the actual diversity is known to-date. Seventeen species are possibly peregrines. Densities appear to be comparable to those in temperate regions, from below 10,000 to 270,000ind.m−2, suggesting that enchytraeids may be as important for soil processes as in temperate regions. Site-specific species richness makes enchytraeids good biological indicators. Enchytraeids provide a widely open field for research in Latin America ranging from taxonomy and faunistics over biogeography, phylogenetics, comparative morphology, and developmental biology, to fundamental and applied ecology. The widespread ignorance concerning enchytraeids among scientists and naturalists as well as the current taxonomic impediment should be overcome by sound taxonomical and ecological work, training courses, identification manuals and popularization.

New hypothesis on pathogenesis of ovarian cancer lead to future tailored approaches.

In the last decades, management of epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) has been based on the staging system of the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO), and different classifications have been proposed for EOC that take account of grade of differentiation, histological subtype, and clinical features. However, despite taxonomic efforts, EOC appears to be not a unique disease; its subtypes differ for epidemiological and genetic risk factors, precursor lesions, patterns of spread, response to chemotherapy, and prognosis. Nevertheless, carboplatin plus paclitaxel combination represents the only standard treatment in adjuvant and advanced settings. This paper summarizes theories about the classification and origin of EOC and classical and new prognostic factors. It presents data about standard treatment and novel agents. We speculate about the possibility to create tailored therapy based on specific mutations in ovarian cancer and to personalize prevention.

Millipede taxonomy after 250 years: classification and taxonomic practices in a mega-diverse yet understudied arthropod group.

BackgroundThe arthropod class Diplopoda is a mega-diverse group comprising >12,000 described millipede species. The history of taxonomic research within the group is tumultuous and, consequently, has yielded a questionable higher-level classification. Few higher-taxa are defined using synapomorphies, and the practice of single taxon descriptions lacking a revisionary framework has produced many monotypic taxa. Additionally, taxonomic and geographic biases render global species diversity estimations unreliable. We test whether the ordinal taxa of the Diplopoda are consistent with regards to underlying taxonomic diversity, attempt to provide estimates for global species diversity, and examine millipede taxonomic effort at a global geographic scale.Methodology/Principal FindingsA taxonomic distinctness metric was employed to assess uniformity of millipede ordinal taxa. We found that ordinal-level taxa are not uniform and are likely overinflated with higher-taxa when compared to related groups. Several methods of estimating global species richness were employed (Bayesian, variation in taxonomic productivity, extrapolation from nearly fully described taxa). Two of the three methods provided estimates ranging from 13,413–16,760 species. Variations in geographic diversity show biases to North America and Europe and a paucity of works on tropical taxa.Conclusions/SignificanceBefore taxa can be used in an extensible way, they must be definable with respect to the diversity they contain and the diagnostic characters used to delineate them. The higher classification for millipedes is shown to be problematic from a number of perspectives. Namely, the ordinal taxa are not uniform in their underlying diversity, and millipedes appear to have a disproportionate number of higher-taxa. Species diversity estimates are unreliable due to inconsistent taxonomic effort at temporal, geographic, and phylogenetic scales. Lack of knowledge concerning many millipede groups compounds these issues. Diplopods are likely not unique in this regard as these issues may persist in many other diverse yet poorly studied groups.

Barcoding against a paradox? Combined molecular species delineations reveal multiple cryptic lineages in elusive meiofaunal sea slugs.

BackgroundMany marine meiofaunal species are reported to have wide distributions, which creates a paradox considering their hypothesized low dispersal abilities. Correlated with this paradox is an especially high taxonomic deficit for meiofauna, partly related to a lower taxonomic effort and partly to a high number of putative cryptic species. Molecular-based species delineation and barcoding approaches have been advocated for meiofaunal biodiversity assessments to speed up description processes and uncover cryptic lineages. However, these approaches show sensitivity to sampling coverage (taxonomic and geographic) and the success rate has never been explored on mesopsammic Mollusca.ResultsWe collected the meiofaunal sea-slug Pontohedyle (Acochlidia, Heterobranchia) from 28 localities worldwide. With a traditional morphological approach, all specimens fall into two morphospecies. However, with a multi-marker genetic approach, we reveal multiple lineages that are reciprocally monophyletic on single and concatenated gene trees in phylogenetic analyses. These lineages are largely concordant with geographical and oceanographic parameters, leading to our primary species hypothesis (PSH). In parallel, we apply four independent methods of molecular based species delineation: General Mixed Yule Coalescent model (GMYC), statistical parsimony, Bayesian Species Delineation (BPP) and Automatic Barcode Gap Discovery (ABGD). The secondary species hypothesis (SSH) is gained by relying only on uncontradicted results of the different approaches (‘minimum consensus approach’), resulting in the discovery of a radiation of (at least) 12 mainly cryptic species, 9 of them new to science, some sympatric and some allopatric with respect to ocean boundaries. However, the meiofaunal paradox still persists in some Pontohedyle species identified here with wide coastal and trans-archipelago distributions.ConclusionsOur study confirms extensive, morphologically cryptic diversity among meiofauna and accentuates the taxonomic deficit that characterizes meiofauna research. We observe for Pontohedyle slugs a high degree of morphological simplicity and uniformity, which we expect might be a general rule for meiofauna. To tackle cryptic diversity in little explored and hard-to-sample invertebrate taxa, at present, a combined approach seems most promising, such as multi-marker-barcoding (i.e., molecular systematics using mitochondrial and nuclear markers and the criterion of reciprocal monophyly) combined with a minimum consensus approach across independent methods of molecular species delineation to define candidate species.

A Comment: Functional Feeding Groups as a Taxonomic Surrogate for a Grassland Arthropod Assemblage

M. Mlambo (2011) raises very valid points in his commentary on our paper (Buschke & Seaman 2011). Although much can be said about the merits (or lack thereof) of our study, we limit our rebuttal to the four points specifically raised by Mlambo. The first point, that assigning functional feeding groups (FFG) is simpler than assigning family level, is rightfully contested by Mlambo and our paper did not provide quantitative evidence of this. Certain FFG cannot be assigned without traditional taxonomic efforts but many others can. For example, although large families such as Scarabaeidae and Muscidae cannot easily be assigned to FFG without further identification, many orders, such as adult Odonata, Neuroptera and Orthoptera, and superfamilies, such as parasitoid Ichneumonoidea and the piercing/sucking Pentatomoidea, share broad feeding styles. Based on our experience, we believe that on average it is simpler to assign FFG than other taxonomic levels. Mlambo's assertion that Kaiser et al. (2009) provide empirical evidence against the use of FFG is unfounded: their study also lacked quantitative evidence of taxonomic difficulties and their judgements were as subjective as ours.

FISH-BOL and seafood identification: Geographically dispersed case studies reveal systemic market substitution across Canada

Background and aims. The Fish Barcode of Life campaign involves a broad international collaboration among scientists working to advance the identification of fishes using DNA barcodes. With over 25% of the world's known ichthyofauna currently profiled, forensic identification of seafood products is now feasible and is becoming routine.Materials and methods. Driven by growing consumer interest in the food supply, investigative reporters from five different media establishments procured seafood samples (n = 254) from numerous retail establishments located among five Canadian metropolitan areas between 2008 and 2010. The specimens were sent to the Canadian Centre for DNA Barcoding for analysis. By integrating the results from these individual case studies in a summary analysis, we provide a broad perspective on seafood substitution across Canada.Results. Barcodes were recovered from 93% of the samples (n = 236), and identified using the Barcode of Life Data Systems “species identification” engine (www.barcodinglife.org). A 99% sequence similarity threshold was employed as a conservative matching criterion for specimen identification to the species level. Comparing these results against the Canadian Food Inspection Agency's “Fish List” a guideline to interpreting “false, misleading or deceptive” names (as per s 27 of the Fish Inspection regulations) demonstrated that 41% of the samples were mislabeled. Most samples were readily identified; however, this was not true in all cases because some samples had no close match. Others were ambiguous due to limited barcode resolution (or imperfect taxonomy) observed within a few closely related species complexes. The latter cases did not significantly impact the results because even the partial resolution achieved was sufficient to demonstrate mislabeling.Conclusion. This work highlights the functional utility of barcoding for the identification of diverse market samples. It also demonstrates how barcoding serves as a bridge linking scientific nomenclature with approved market names, potentially empowering regulatory bodies to enforce labeling standards. By synchronizing taxonomic effort with sequencing effort and database curation, barcoding provides a molecular identification resource of service to applied forensics.

Predicting Total Global Species Richness Using Rates of Species Description and Estimates of Taxonomic Effort

We found that trends in the rate of description of 580,000 marine and terrestrial species, in the taxonomically authoritative World Register of Marine Species and Catalogue of Life databases, were similar until the 1950s. Since then, the relative number of marine to terrestrial species described per year has increased, reflecting the less explored nature of the oceans. From the mid-19th century, the cumulative number of species described has been linear, with the highest number of species described in the decade of 1900, and fewer species described and fewer authors active during the World Wars. There were more authors describing species since the 1960s, indicating greater taxonomic effort. There were fewer species described per author since the 1920s, suggesting it has become more difficult to discover new species. There was no evidence of any change in individual effort by taxonomists. Using a nonhomogeneous renewal process model we predicted that 24-31% to 21-29% more marine and terrestrial species remain to be discovered, respectively. We discuss why we consider that marine species comprise only 16% of all species on Earth although the oceans contain a greater phylogenetic diversity than occurs on land. We predict that there may be 1.8-2.0 million species on Earth, of which about 0.3 million are marine, significantly less than some previous estimates.

Seasonal patterns of tidepool macroalgal assemblages in the North of Portugal. Consistence between species and functional group approaches

Macroalgae are useful organisms to monitor the environmental quality and to detect impacts due to anthropogenic activities. However, it is very important to identify the scales of variation in natural assemblages, particularly for the detection of environmental impacts. Otherwise, changes due to anthropogenic impacts may be confused with differences due to natural temporal variability. Another important task is to determine the appropriate level of taxonomical effort needed to detect changes in the assemblage structure. Many taxonomical surrogates, at higher taxonomic levels than that of species, have been proposed but, the consistence in space and time of the results produced by surrogates with those obtained at specific level should be tested. The objectives of this study are to identify the seasonal patterns of tidepool macroalgal communities using objective procedures and to test the consistence between the patterns obtained considering data at the species level and functional groups. Results showed that the seasonal pattern obtained using functional groups and species was consistent. Tidepool macroalgal assemblages showed a seasonal pattern with significant differences between spring–summer and autumn–winter. This pattern can be explained by changes in environmental variables and the seasonal development of the dominating species. Ulva spp. and the non-indigenous species Grateloupia turuturu were the species responsible for this pattern due to their high seasonality in terms of biomass. Finally, the abundance and species diversity within the corticated functional group was proposed as indicator of environmental impacts due to its relatively constant abundance and its sensitivity to environmental impacts.

Biodiversity hotspots house most undiscovered plant species

For most organisms, the number of described species considerably underestimates how many exist. This is itself a problem and causes secondary complications given present high rates of species extinction. Known numbers of flowering plants form the basis of biodiversity "hotspots"--places where high levels of endemism and habitat loss coincide to produce high extinction rates. How different would conservation priorities be if the catalog were complete? Approximately 15% more species of flowering plant are likely still undiscovered. They are almost certainly rare, and depending on where they live, suffer high risks of extinction from habitat loss and global climate disruption. By using a model that incorporates taxonomic effort over time, regions predicted to contain large numbers of undiscovered species are already conservation priorities. Our results leave global conservation priorities more or less intact, but suggest considerably higher levels of species imperilment than previously acknowledged.

Reservoirs of richness: least disturbed tropical forests are centres of undescribed species diversity

In the last few decades, there has been a remarkable discovery of new species of plants, invertebrates and vertebrates, in what have been called the new age of discovery. However, owing to anthropogenic impacts such as habitat conversion, many of the still unknown species may go extinct before being scientifically documented (i.e. 'crypto-extinctions'). Here, by applying a mathematical model of species descriptions which accounts for taxonomic effort, we show that even after 250 years of taxonomic classification, about 3050 amphibians and at least 160 land mammal species remain to be discovered and described. These values represent, respectively, 33 and 3 per cent of the current species total for amphibians and land mammals. We found that tropical moist forests of the Neotropics, Afrotropics and Indomalaya probably harbour the greatest numbers of undescribed species. Tropical forests with minimal anthropogenic disturbance are predicted to have larger proportions of undescribed species. However, the protected area coverage is low in many of these key biomes. Moreover, undescribed species are likely to be at a greater risk of extinction compared with known species because of small geographical ranges among other factors. By highlighting the key areas of undescribed species diversity, our study provides a starting template to rapidly document these species and protect them through better habitat management.

New records of Serpulidae (Annelida, Polychaeta) collected by R/V "Vityaz" from bathyal and abyssal depths of the Pacific Ocean

The diversity of bathyal and abyssal marine organisms is still poorly known and this is especially true for tubicolous polychaetes of the family Serpulidae, the common inhabitants of subtidal and shelf locations. We report herein new records of poorly known deep-sea (mostly below 2000 m) serpulids collected in the Pacific Ocean by early Soviet Oceanographic expeditions onboard R/V “Vityaz”. The following species were found: Bathyditrupa hovei, Bathyvermilia challengeri, B eliasoni, B. zibrowiusi, Filogranula stellata, Hyalopomatus jirkovi, and H. sikorski at the depths of 1600–6330 m. Many samples collected by R/V “Vityaz” and other Russian research vessels are still unstudied and apparently many bathyal and abyssal serpulid species new to science remain undescribed. The diversity of abyssal marine organisms remains poorly known not only because of the obvious logistical difficulties in collecting at abyssal localities, but also in part due to the lack of taxonomic effort directed towards existing research collections.

Description of a new goatfish species, <i>Upeneus randalli</i> n. sp. (Mullidae), from the Persian Gulf, with remarks and identification keys for the genus <i>Upeneus</i>

The number of species of the goatfish genus Upeneus from the western Indian Ocean has increased considerably due to recent taxonomic efforts. Here we describe a new species, Upeneus randalli n. sp., based on body and fin coloration and 50 morphometric and meristic characters of eight specimens from the Persian Gulf, and supported by comparative data from a taxonomic review of western Indian Ocean Upeneus species and additional material from collections. Upeneus randalli is distinguished from congeners by the combination of 8 dorsal-fin spines, 14 pectoral-fin rays, 23 to 25 gill rakers, 28 to 30 lateral-line scales, pectoral-fin width 22 to 26 times in SL, and red bars on both caudal-fin lobes. We provide two identification keys: one key is for distinguishing among four species groups and the morphologically unique U. filifer , accounting for all 28 species of the genus, and the other key is for the six closely related species of the “ U. tragula group” from the western Indian Ocean, including U. randalli n. sp. Since the colour patterns fade away soon after collection and can be completely lost during preservation, morphometric and meristic characters are important for correctly identifying U. randalli n. sp. and the closely related U. margarethae . The latter species shows considerable variation in body form in different areas of the western Indian Ocean. We discuss the significance of detailed comparative studies of caudal-fin colour patterns and body-form characters for obtaining a deeper understanding of inter- and intraspecific diversity among Upeneus .

A Global Assessment of Amphibian Taxonomic Effort and Expertise

Taxonomy, the description and classification of life's diversity, is a discipline that underpins all biological sciences. Current gaps in taxonomic knowledge and expertise restrict our ability to effectively conserve and manage biodiversity. Among vertebrates, amphibians are of particular concern; they are highly threatened yet poorly known. We found that resident expertise in amphibian taxonomy is concentrated in economically rich but relatively species-poor countries in North America and Europe. However, much expertise is exported; most experts work on species elsewhere, in biodiverse Asia or South America. Unexpectedly, age pyramids of taxonomists revealed healthy levels of participation among young researchers, though available expertise remains inadequate across most of the globe. Our results strongly suggest that many amphibian species are becoming extinct before they are described, and provide concrete support for the widespread calls to increase taxonomic expertise worldwide.

Predicting the number of known and unknown species in European seas using rates of description

Aim In this paper, we compare species description rates to predict the numbers of undescribed species. These data are used to discuss the merits of various attempts to estimate species richness in the oceans. Location European marine areas. Methods Predictions of how many species may exist on Earth have lacked an inventory of how many have been described, except for a few small taxa. The ocean is a good place to start an inventory because it includes all but one of the phyla and most classes of life on Earth. The European Register of Marine Species (ERMS) was compiled by taxonomic experts, covered all marine taxa, and accounted for synonyms. Reflecting taxonomic history, Europe's species are the best described in the world. Results ERMS listed 29,713 species of animals, plants and protists, but excluded bacteria and viruses. An estimated 6500 described species were not included. The best prediction of the number of species remaining to be described was 5613. Plots of years when species were first described showed no decrease in the rate of description for any taxa except birds, mammals and krill. If taxonomic effort has increased, whether due to more resources globally or greater efficiencies of productivity, then description rates per unit effort may be declining and the number of undescribed species may be lower than predicted. However, apart from reduced rates of description during the World Wars, there were no changes in description rates that could be easily attributed to such factors. Conclusions There are about 36,000 species described from European seas, and we predict that 40,000 to 48,000 may exist. This comprises 15% of the estimated 230,000 described marine species. However, this area is well known compared with other seas and the proportion of species yet to be discovered will be higher elsewhere.

Status of non-indigenous benthic invertebrates in the Duluth–Superior Harbor and the role of sampling methods in their detection

As part of a study to develop recommendations for non-indigenous species (NIS) monitoring in Great Lakes areas at risk of invasion, we conducted intensive sampling in the Duluth–Superior Harbor and lower St. Louis River in 2005 and 2006. Of the ~240 benthic invertebrate taxa identified, 19 were non-indigenous, including 8 first detection records for this system: New Zealand mud snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum; African/Asian-origin cladoceran Daphnia lumholtzi; Eurasian-origin amphipod Echinogammarus ischnus; Eurasian-origin bivalves Dreissena bugensis, Pisidium henslowanum and Pisidium supinum; and possibly range expanding oligochaetes Paranais frici and Pristina acuminata. Dreissenids were by far the most abundant NIS. Several other NIS were also common, but others were detected in only a few of the >200 samples taken. Non-indigenous amphipods and Dreissena were most frequently detected in sweep net and colonization plate samples of littoral vegetation, while NIS oligochaetes, gastropods, and non-dreissenid bivalves were most frequently detected in ponar and bottom sled samples of sediments. Our findings confirm that this major shipping port remains a NIS “hotspot” and emphasize that regular surveys covering a range of habitats with multiple sampling gears and thorough taxonomic effort are needed to detect and monitor non-indigenous species.

How many species of flowering plants are there?

We estimate the probable number of flowering plants. First, we apply a model that explicitly incorporates taxonomic effort over time to estimate the number of as-yet-unknown species. Second, we ask taxonomic experts their opinions on how many species are likely to be missing, on a family-by-family basis. The results are broadly comparable. We show that the current number of species should grow by between 10 and 20 per cent. There are, however, interesting discrepancies between expert and model estimates for some families, suggesting that our model does not always completely capture patterns of taxonomic activity. The as-yet-unknown species are probably similar to those taxonomists have described recently—overwhelmingly rare and local, and disproportionately in biodiversity hotspots, where there are high levels of habitat destruction.