Tattoo Ink Research Articles (Page 6)

This chapter reviews our present knowledge about equipment used for cosmetic (decorative) and medical tattooing and its function with respect to installation of tattoo ink into the skin. In the following text, the word "tattooing" refers to body tattooing, permanent makeup (PMU), microblading, and medical micropigmentation. The major consumer risks related to unsafe tattoo and PMU equipment are reconsidered. Such health risks mainly include the danger of non-sterile needles or needle cartridges, cross contamination of equipment and lack of biocompatibility. Even though state-of-the-art tattoo equipment will support the tattooist to reduce such health risks, also today unsafe equipment still might affect consumer health due to malpractice advertising and fraudulent CE certificates by questionable manufacturers and suppliers not being transparent to parlors and artists. For artists, it is therefore of growing importance to understand how to distinguish well-made safe tattoo equipment from fraudulent unsafe products.

Perception of skin color in the natural state, or with tattoo pigment installed in the dermis is highly complex and includes both optical requisites and eye and brain functions connected to advanced cognitive and psychological functions. Permanent makeup (PMU) is miniaturized tattooing on critical anatomical location aiming at fulfilment of a person's esthetic ideal. It is a special challenge since a satisfactory outcome depends on perfectionated technique and very critical selection of pigments. The eye can be compared to a digital camera, and the center of central vision in the brain to a computer and color integrator. Color perception is the end product of a complicated brain function. The background theory of color physics and perception is reviewed with emphasis on aspects related to changed skin color created by pigment installed in the dermis with the purpose to tattoo eyebrows, eyeliners, lips, and other locations. The delicate dosing of pigment relative to the natural skin tone is highlighted. The review is relevant for all aspects of PMU including medical tattooing, e.g., areola tattooing after breast cancer surgery. A detailed guidance to PMU artists and medical tattooists on selection and use of tattoo inks and pigments is provided. The guidance is also relevant to laser surgeons and technicians performing tattoo removal.

Tattoo application is widely performed all over the world; however,injection of coloring substances into the skin as metals may posea risk for allergies and other skin inflammations and systemic diseases.In this context, tattoo inks in green, black, and red colors of threebrands were purchased. Before starting the analysis, the acid mixturesuitable for microwave burning was determined, and according to theseresults, the inks were digested with nitric acid, hydrochloric acid,and hydrofluoric acid. Then, method validation was performed for tattooinks using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. The relativecontribution of metals to the tattoo ink composition was highly variablebetween colors and brands. Elements found in the main components ofinks are as follows (in mg kg–1): Al, 1191.1–3424.9;Co, 0.04–1.07; Cu, 1.24–2523.4; Fe, 16.98–318.42;Ni, 0.63–17.53; and Zn, 2.6–46.9. It has been determinedby the Environmental Protection Agency that in some products, especiallythe copper element is above the determined limit. The analysis resultsobtained were classified by chemometric analysis, and the color andbrand relationship were determined. More toxicological studies arenecessary to understand the effects of tattoo inks containing heavymetals and/or organic components.

Tattoos are becoming increasingly common in the United States. However, little information is available to help clinicians anticipate where, when, and on what topics patients will seek guidance regarding tattoo care, complications, and removal. The aim of this study was to model web searches concerning general interest in tattoo application, tattoo removal, and the geolocation of tattooing services. Relative search volumes (RSVs) were elicited from Google Trends, filtered to web searches made in the United States between January 15, 2008, and October 15, 2022. Longitudinal data were analyzed in GraphPad Prism and geospatial data were visualized with Datawrapper for general interest searches (tattoo and tattoo removal), aggregated geolocating searches (eg, tattoo shops near me), and symptomatic searches relating to adverse effects (eg, itchy tattoo). Results were compared to previous global literature and national surveys of tattoo prevalence. In the United States, the search terms tattoo and tattoo removal have experienced stable RSVs over the past 14 years, with both showing peaks in the summer and troughs in the winter. RSVs for search terms that geolocate tattooing services have experienced a general increase in use since 2008. A compilation of results for all collated geolocating search terms localized these searches mainly to the American South, with lesser involvement in the eastern Midwest and inland West. Increased search interest in the Southeast at the expense of more populous coastal states and Great Plains or western Midwest states reflects the ongoing harmonization of tattoo prevalence across regions, as shown by national surveys. Searches for symptoms related to adverse reactions to tattooing experienced an increase over the period of interest, with the same distribution as previous global findings. Clinicians should be aware of an increase in search interest regarding tattoos and their removal, especially during the summer months in the Southeast and Midwest. This increase in interest is occurring together with increased tattoo prevalence and increased search interest for adverse reactions in a country lagging behind in tattoo ink regulation.

Metabacillus litoralis is part of the newly proposed genus Metabacillus. The bacterium was first isolated from a Yellow Sea tidal flat in 2005. As of May 2022, there are five genomic assemblies deposited in GenBank. We report the 5.2-Mbp genome sequence of M. litoralis strain NCTR108, from commercial tattoo ink.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) studies [1] of the evolution of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) (the monkey analogue of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) have revealed that the SIV is localised in different organs at different stages of the infection. Promising routes to completely eradicate the HIV virus particles involve therapies that target the infection at the cellular level. Our previous μ-Particle Induced X-ray Emission (μ-PIXE) studies revealed very large variations in the contents of heavy minor and trace elements in the jejunum of control and SIV-infected subjects. These variations could be caused by factors such as the histological preparation and particles in chyme. The present work investigates particulate matter observed in the tissue sections in both the control and virus-infected subjects that dominated the variations in the mean elemental content determined by μ-PIXE. Detailed study of the PIXE data suggested the particles with size of 10’s of μm were likely to be made up of agglomerated nano-particles. The measured composition of the particles was consistent with natural calcified particles in the brain (acervuli or “Brain sand”), tattoo ink in a mesenteric lymph node and silica in the liver.

Introduction: Small intestinal adenomas can occur sporadically. While the duodenum is the most frequently involved site, an ileal adenoma is extremely rare, with no clear surveillance guidelines. It is controversial whether or not an ileoscopy should be performed during routine screening colonoscopy. We present a rare case of an incidentally found adenoma in the terminal ileum (TI) during a surveillance colonoscopy. Case Description/Methods: A 69-year-old male with a past medical history of hypertension and colon polyps presented to the outpatient endoscopy unit for his third colonoscopy. His first colonoscopy was done at age 58. He had seven sub-centimeter adenomatous polyps at that time. An ileoscopy was not attempted, and he was instructed to repeat the exam in 3 years. A surveillance colonoscopy without ileoscopy was done at age 62. He only had a few left-sided hyperplastic polyps, but a repeat exam in 5 years was recommended, given his history. At this time, he did not have any complaints and denied any gastrointestinal symptoms. His vital signs and physical exam were unremarkable. Colonoscopy was performed, and the TI was intubated. A 3 cm pedunculated polyp (Figure A, B) was found and removed piecemeal with a hot snare, and retrieved with a Roth net. Two endoclips were placed to control post-polypectomy bleeding, with no bleeding at the end of the procedure. One mL of tattoo ink was injected submucosally 2-3 cm proximal to the polyp. Pathology revealed tubular adenoma (TA) with high-grade dysplasia (HGD) (Figure C), with margin negative for HGD. He also had seven sub-centimeter adenomatous polyps in his colon. He was instructed to repeat colonoscopy with ileoscopy in 6 months for surveillance and to get an upper endoscopy at that same time to rule out duodenal adenomas with a plan for video capsule endoscopy to clear the rest of his small bowel. Discussion: Adenomas are commonly found in the colon; however, they can develop in the small bowel. While not well quantified, their frequency is low, with the duodenum and jejunum more commonly affected than the ileum. There are no available surveillance guidelines when adenomatous polyps are found in the TI. In our case, we completely resected an incidentally found large adenomatous TI polyp with HGD, which could have progressed to cancer and/or obstructive symptoms. This suggests a role for routine ileoscopy during screening colonoscopy.Figure 1.: (a) A large 3 centimeter pedunculated terminal ileum polyp. (b) A low-power photomicrograph of hematoxylin and eosin stain showing adenomatous polyp. (c) A medium power photomicrograph of hematoxylin and eosin stain showing an area demonstrating increased architectural complexity and loss of nuclear polarization, indicative of high-grade dysplasia.

Assessing the Association Between Endoscopic Tattooing and Lymph Node Yield in Rectal Cancer

Endoscopic tattooing in rectal cancer is infrequently utilized for fear of tattoo ink obscuring anatomical planes, increasing the difficulty of surgical excision. Colon cancer tattooing has demonstrated increased lymph node yields and increased accuracy in establishing adequate margins. Rectal cancer tattooing may be especially helpful after neoadjuvant chemoradiation, where complete clinical responses could limit lesion identification and lymph node yields are typically less robust. We seek to review and identify the effects of tattooing in rectal cancer. A systematic literature search was performed in PubMed, Embase, and SCOPUS. Studies on endoscopic tattooing with cohorts consisting of at least ≥ 25% of rectal cancer patients were selected. Studies focusing solely on rectal cancer were also reviewed separately. Of 416 studies identified, 10 studies encompassing 2460 patients were evaluated. Seven studies evaluated lymph node yields; five reported beneficial effects of endoscopic tattooing, while two reported no significant difference. Among four studies reporting lesion localization, successful localization rates were between 63 and 100%. Rates of intraoperative endoscopy performed to reevaluate lesion location ranged from 5.7 to 20%. The distal margin was evaluated in two studies, which reported more accurate placement of the distal resection margin after tattooing. When complications of tattooing were documented (7 studies with 889 patients), only five direct complications of endoscopic tattooing were observed (0.6%). Although the data is heterogenous, it suggests that endoscopic tattooing in rectal cancer may improve lymph node yields and assist in determining accurate distal margins without high rates of complication. Further research must be completed before practice management guidelines can change. No. CRD42021271784.

With increased popularity of decorative tattoos, awareness of tattoo-based dermatological complications has been raised. Health issues include a broad spectrum dominated by allergies and infections. To examine the etiopathology and prognose the outcome of an appropriate therapy, a non-invasive intravital diagnostic approach is indicated. The present pilot study introduces multiphoton tomography equipped with fluorescence lifetime imaging as a diagnostic technique to examine the morphological and metabolic status of tattooed human skin at patient's bedside. The distributing course of tattoo particles can be visualised over time. By providing optical biopsies, inflammation-based alterations in freshly tattooed skin and tattoo complications can be analysed. The study concludes that multiphoton tomography combined with fluorescence lifetime imaging is a suitable technique for in vivo visualisation of tattoo pigments as well as for the assessment of quantitative and qualitative skin changes after injection of tattoo ink into human skin.

BC06: A photo case of allergic contact dermatitis to red tattoo ink

As tattooing becomes more and more popular, growing numbers of skin reactions caused by tattoos are also becoming frequently encountered by medical professionals. We present a generic case of a tattoo-induced allergic reaction and explore its’ immunological mechanism. This paper also highlights components of tattoo inks, their allergenic potential, and possible options for treatment. There can be different types of allergens in tattoo inks. Some are biodegradable, while others are not. Examples of biodegradable components include natural dyes and preservatives. Allergic reactions caused by such agents may resolve with simple therapy since after a short period they will be cleared from the skin. On the other hand, synthetic molecules and other non-degradable dyes will need invasive therapy, such as surgery, dermatome shaving and most commonly used - laser removal therapy. Most notable in this regard is red ink with the highest incidence. There are no current regulations on tattoo inks, which puts tattoo enthusiasts at a higher risk of developing allergic reactions. There are certain preventive measures, such as patch and dot tests. Because the specificity of these tests is mediocre, despite negative results, an allergic reaction may develop weeks or months later. There are no strict treatment guidelines and each case must be assessed individually. Our patient was a young woman, who developed a local allergic reaction due to the red pigment used in her tattoo. Initial treatment, in this case, was anti-inflammatory to reduce inflammation. The only way to get full resolution in such cases is to remove the allergen (red pigment) from the dermis. The patient was prescribed topical treatment with corticosteroids. Once irritation subsided tattoo removal therapy with Q-switched Nd 532 nm laser was initiated. The inflammation returned after the first session, for which local anti-inflammatory medications were started. Due to the ineffectiveness of laser removal and local treatments systemic therapy with corticosteroids was prescribed with gradually decreasing the dosage and controlling the disease. After two months of this treatment, the patient's condition improved. She is still undergoing therapy with systemic corticosteroids.

Tattoo inks are comprised of different combinations of bioactive chemicals with combined biological effects that are insufficiently explored. Tattoos have been associated with oxidative stress; however, a recent N-of-1 study suggested that blue tattoos may be associated with suppressed local skin oxidative stress. The present study aimed to explore the attributes of the blue tattoo ink (BTI) that may explain its possible effects on redox homeostasis, namely the catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD)-mimetic properties that have been reported for copper(II) phthalocyanine (CuPC)—the main BTI constituent. Intenze™ Persian blue (PB) BTI has been used in the experiment. CAT and SOD-mimetic properties of PB and its pigment-enriched fractions were analyzed using the carbonato-cobaltate (III) formation-derived H2O2 dissociation and 1,2,3-trihydroxybenzene autoxidation rate assays utilizing simple buffers and biochemical matrix of normal skin tissue as chemical reaction environments. CuPC-based tattoo ink PB and both its blue and white pigment-enriched fractions demonstrate CAT and SOD-mimetic properties in vitro with effect sizes demonstrating a substantial dependence on the biochemical environment. PB constituents act as inhibitors of CAT but potentiate its activity in the biochemical matrix of the skin. CuPC-based BTI can mimic antioxidant enzymes, however chemical constituents other than CuPC (e.g. the photoreactive TiO2) seem to be at least partially responsible for the BTI redox-modulating properties.

Due to the increasing tattoo practicing in Eastern countries and general concern on tattoo ink composition and safety, the green tattoo inks Green Concentrate by Eternal, for European and “for Asia Market Only” were analyzed, under the premise that only the former falls under a composition regulation. A separation of the additives from the pigment was carried out by successive extraction in solvents of different polarities, i.e., water, acetone and dichloromethane. The solid residues were analyzed by IR and Raman spectroscopies, the liquid fractions by GC/mass spectrometry. The relative pigment load and element traces were also estimated. We found that the European and the Asian inks are based on the same pigment, PG7, restricted in Europe, though at different loads. They have a similar content of harmful impurities, such as Ni, As, Cd and Sb and both contain siloxanes, including harmful D4. Furthermore, they have different physical-chemical properties, the European ink being more hydrophilic, the Asian more hydrophobic. Additionally, the Asian ink contains harmful additives for the solubilization of hydrophobic matrices and by-products of the phthalocyanine synthesis. Teratogenic phthalates are present as well as chlorinated teratogenic and carcinogenic compounds usually associated to the laser treatment for removal purposes, to a larger extent in the European ink. The composition of the inks does not seem to reflect regulatory restrictions, where issued.

Eliminating Tattoos for Short Course Palliative Radiation Therapy: Set-up Error, Satisfaction and Cost

Today, tattooing has become very popular among people all over the world. Tattooists, with the help of tiny needles, place tattoo ink inside the skin surface and unintentionally introduce a large number of unknown ingredients. These ingredients include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heavy metals, and primary aromatic amines (PAAs), which are either unintentionally introduced along with the ink or produced inside the skin by different types of processes for example cleavage, metabolism and photodecomposition. These could pose toxicological risks to human health, if present beyond permissible limits. PAH such as Benzo(a)pyrene is present in carbon black ink. PAAs could be formed inside the skin as a result of reductive cleavage of organic azo dyes. They are reported to be highly carcinogenic by environmental protection agencies. Heavy metals, namely, cadmium, lead, mercury, antimony, beryllium, and arsenic are responsible for cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, lungs, kidneys, liver, endocrine, and bone diseases. Mercury, cobalt sulphate, other soluble cobalt salts, and carbon black are in Group 2B, which means they may cause cancer in humans. Cadmium and compounds of cadmium, on the other hand, are in Group 1 (carcinogenic to humans). The present article addresses the various ingredients of tattoo inks, their metabolic fate inside human skin and unintentionally added impurities that could pose toxicological risk to human health. Public awareness and regulations that are warranted to be implemented globally for improving the safety of tattooing.

Background: Tattoo ink safety is one of the main concerns surrounding tattooing practices. In order to better assess the risks and increase the safety of tattoo inks, it is important to know about the habits of tattooists in real life. Objective: We investigated the most popular inks in the French market and how professional tattooists used them in their daily practice. Methods: We performed an observational, self-reported, online survey concerning the French tattoo artists. All active professional tattooists in France were invited to take part in a six-question Internet survey regarding their tattoo inks usage habits. Results: 598 tattooists reported 36 different brands of black inks and 30 of colored inks. However, 6 brands of black inks were used by 14.2–44% of the tattooists and, for colored inks, 5 manufacturers were favored by 11.2 up to 55.7% of the tattooists. The majority of tattooists (68.9%) mixed two different colors or more to obtain a new shade while 21.7% would try to find the adequate shade within the assortment provided by a manufacturer. 54.4% had between 10 and 40 references, 31.9% had less than 10 references, 11.5% had 40–100 references, and 2.2% had >100 references. Conclusions: The market of tattoo inks in France is dominated only by a fistful of brands. Controls by official authorities should target those popular brands, even though all brands should respect the law. Toxicological studies should always precise the provenance market and which brands are tested, so we can assess their impact in real life. Tattooists should also try to lower the number of ready-made colors they require.

Permanent make-up (PMU) has become a very popular application over the last few years. The ingredients of PMU inks, used over the face area, are organic and inorganic substances very close to the chemical composition of tattoo inks. As the application rates increase, the demand for PMU removal rises. The aim of this study is to assess the decolorization of PMU inks using preparations originating from different plant sources. The leaves of Pelargonium zonale (PE) were extracted with water for 48 h. The Total Phenolic Content (TPC) of the extract was determined using the Folin–Ciocalteu technique reaching 201.34 ± 4.57 μg Gallic Acid Equivalents (GAE)/mL of extract. The antioxidant activity of the extract was 20.87 ± 0.36 μg of Trolox equivalents (TE)/mL and 3.56 ± 0.43 mg FeSO4×7H2O mL of extract when assessed by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) or ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay respectively. The decolorization potential of PE leaf extract on five commercially available PMU inks of different hues was assessed by UV-Vis spectrophotometry in comparison to polyphenol oxidases enzyme (PPO). The results demonstrated higher absorption reduction that indicates decolorization potential for the inks that have mainly ferrous oxides as colorants.

Eliminating tattoos for short course palliative radiation therapy: Set-up error, satisfaction and cost

European tattoo ingredient ban: Implications for North America