Tattoo Ink Research Articles

This study offers a comprehensive analysis of the tools and technologies employed in Fine Line tattooing, encompassing tattoo machines, needles, pigments, and power supply systems. It critically evaluates the performance and technical specifications of both coil and rotary machines, alongside the material properties and configurations of tattoo needles and inks, to determine their impact on the precision and durability of Fine Line designs. The paper integrates global industry trends and practical case studies to present an informed comparison of current methodologies, highlighting innovations that enhance both safety and aesthetic outcomes. Practical guidelines and recommendations for tattoo artists, from novices to experienced practitioners, are discussed, emphasizing the balance between technological capabilities and artisanal skill.

Because it is difficult to totally remove ink particles trapped in the skin, tattoo removal-especially for deeply and densely pigmented types-remains a substantial issue. This frequently leads to scarring, persistent pigmentation, or an incomplete removal. Significant promise in resolving this problem since high-peak power pulsed Nd: YAG lasers can efficiently target ink particles even in deeper skin layers, they have shown. The purpose of this study is to assess how well the Nd: YAG laser uses tissue photodisruption to remove deeply embedded tattoo ink. High intensity Nd: YAG lasers provide a very efficient way to remove tattoos by dissolving ink particles with the least amount of harm to surrounding tissue. Two sessions of Q-switched Nd: YAG (1064nm) laser treatment was performed on a 36-year-old woman who had a very deep black tattoo on her arm. When the tattooed area was treated with a laser beam with a 6-mm spot size and 5J/cm² fluence. After two months, the process was repeated, and the last evaluation was carried out one month after the second therapy. For histologic research objectives, one local white rabbit was also included in this investigation. Under general anesthesia, the rabbit was injected with tattoos of black pigment and given a single session. Black ink significantly lightened without leaving any scars and a crust formed right after. The spectroscopic properties of black tattoo ink were examined. Following laser exposure, there was a noticeable decrease in the appearance of the ink without any indication of inflammation or cell growth. Within ten days, the skin's texture improved and the tattoo was 85% cleared after two laser sessions without blistering or changes in texture. Black ink granules were efficiently broken down by laser-induced cavitation, creating structures resembling bubbles. Ink fragments were phagocytized and distributed throughout the layers of the skin, whereas histological examination of treated black tattooed rabbit skin revealed a notable decrease in ink particle size without inflammatory reactions. albeit there was no injury to the epidermis, the 1064nm Nd: YAG laser produced deep vacuoles and selective absorption by black ink, albeit localized inflammatory reactions were noted. The 1064nm Q-switched Nd: YAG laser, operating at 6ns, demonstrated safety and effectiveness for deep tattoo removal. It achieved 85% clearance after two sessions, without inducing pigmentation changes.

As tattoos have grown increasingly popular, there has been an increase in their removal. This is commonly achieved using laser treatments. However, certain tattoo inks are resistant to removal using laser methods because of their composition. This includes the removal of yellow pigments and tattoo inks containing titanium dioxide (TiO2). This research examined a series of yellow pigments (PY14, PY74, PY65) and tattoo inks, pre- and post-irradiation, with a QS Nd:YAG laser irradiation at 532 nm. The pigments and products were analysed using a range of techniques, including EDX-SEM, DLS, XRD and GC–MS. Results of this study indicate that the presence of TiO2 alters the laser degradation process of the pigments studied, with observable changes to particle morphologies, particle size, and evolved volatile products. In addition, some of the degradation products were identified to be potentially harmful to the human body.

Tattoo inks contain varying amounts of metal nanoparticles (NPs) < 100 nm that, due to their unique physicochemical properties, may have specific biological uptake and cause skin or systemic toxicities. The toxic effects of certified reference standards of metal NPs and samples of commercially available tattoo inks were investigated using an in vitro system and a novel human ex vivo model. In vitro toxicity was evaluated using vitality assays on human skin cells (HaCaT cell line, primary fibroblasts, and keratinocytes). No toxicity was observed for Al2O3, Cr2O3, Fe2O3, and TiO2 NPs, whereas CuO NPs showed dose-dependent toxicity on HaCaT and primary fibroblasts. Fibroblasts and keratinocytes were also sensitive to high concentrations of ZnO NPs. Reference standards and ink samples were then injected ex vivo into human skin explants using tattoo needles. Histological analysis showed pigment distribution deep in the dermis and close to dermal vessels, suggesting possible systemic diffusion. The presence of an inflammatory infiltrate was also observed. Immunohistochemical analysis showed increased apoptosis and expression of the inflammatory cytokine interleukin-8 in explants specifically tattooed with the reference standard or red ink. Taken together, the results suggest that the tattooing technique leads to exposure to toxic metal NPs and skin damage.

About one-fifth of people in industrialised countries are tattooed, potentially putting them at risk of exposure to possible carcinogenic or otherwise harmful substances. This study aims to determine the exposure to soluble tattoo ink ingredients and their excretion within 24 h after tattooing. In this clinical study, 24 subjects were tattooed with black or red tattoo ink to which the 3 tracer substances, potassium iodide, 4-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) and 2-phenoxyethanol (PEtOH), had been added to mimic known substances found in tattoo inks. Tracers and their metabolites were quantified in blood, urine, ink and consumables pre- and post-tattooing. Tattooed skin area was determined using picture analysis. PABA metabolism upon tattooing was compared to peroral administration. Skin fibroblasts and macrophages were tested in vitro for their ability to metabolise PABA. All tracers or their metabolites were identified in urine; iodide and the PABA metabolite 4-acetamidobenzoic acid (ACD) were identified in plasma. The worst-case scenario for systemic ink exposure was estimated to be 0.31 g ink per tattoo session (75th percentile). Peroral administration resulted in lower levels of ACD than tattooing. Fibroblasts and macrophages were capable of converting PABA into ACD. Our results are the first human in vivo data on soluble tattoo ink ingredients and suggest that the overall exposure might be lower than the estimates previously used for regulatory purposes. In addition, the first-pass effect by skin metabolism leads to an altered metabolite profile compared to oral exposure. Skin metabolism might also contribute to detoxification of certain carcinogenic substances through N-acetylation.

Tattoos are widespread in the population. Tattoo inks, which contain a variety of ingredients among them hazardous compounds such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons, heavy metals and nanoparticles and that are made for injection into the skin, are not dermatologically tested. New testing systems for evaluation of biocompatibility of tattoo inks as composite products and the tattooing process itself are needed. This paper describes an in vitro 3D human skin model that was tattooed with black and red ink. Biocompatibility including analysis of cytotoxicity, cytokine release, and gene expression patterns of proinflammatory cytokines, proliferation markers, growth factors and structural components was investigated over a period of 7 days. Tattooing of the 3D skin model resulted in a strong inflammatory reaction comparable to in vivo observations that subsided 4 days after treatment. The subsequent healing phase was detectable in the gene expression patterns. Tattooing with two different tattoo inks resulted in distinguishable inflammatory reactions. The described 3D skin model is a useful tool for evaluation of the biocompatibility of tattoo inks and the tattooing process itself and for characterizing the healing process after tattooing.

BackgroundWe aim to study the potential association between tattoo ink exposure and development of certain types of cancers in the recently established Danish Twin Tattoo Cohort. Tattoo ink is known to transfer from skin to blood and accumulate in regional lymph nodes. We are concerned that tattoo ink induces inflammation at the deposit site, leading to chronic inflammation and increasing risk of abnormal cell proliferation, especially skin cancer and lymphoma.MethodsWe conducted two designs of twin studies to improve confounder control: A cohort study of 2,367 randomly selected twins and a case-control study of 316 twins born in the period 1960–1996. Cancer diagnoses (ICD-10) were retrieved from the Danish Cancer Registry and tattoo ink exposure from the Danish Twin Tattoo survey from 2021. The analysis addressed effects of time-varying exposure.ResultsIn the case-control study, individual-level analysis resulted in a hazard of skin cancer (of any type except basal cell carcinoma) that was 1.62 times higher among tattooed individuals (95% CI: 1.08–2.41). Twin-matched analysis of 14 twin pairs discordant for tattoo ink exposure and skin cancer showed HR = 1.33 (95% CI: 0.46–3.84). For skin cancer and lymphoma, increased hazards were found for tattoos larger than the palm of a hand: HR = 2.37 (95% CI: 1.11–5.06) and HR = 2.73 (95% CI: 1.33–5.60), respectively. In the cohort study design, individual-level analysis resulted in a hazard ratio of 3.91 (95% CI: 1.42–10.8) for skin cancer and 2.83 (95% CI: 1.30–6.16) for basal cell carcinoma.ConclusionIn conclusion, our study suggests an increased hazard of lymphoma and skin cancers among tattooed individuals, demonstrated through two designs: a twin cohort and a case-cotwin study. We are concerned that tattoo ink interacting with surrounding cells may have severe consequences. Studies that pinpoint the etiological pathway of tattoo ink induced carcinogenesis are recommended to benefit public health.

Femtosecond lasers represent a novel tool for tattoo removal as sources that can be operated at high power, potentially leading to different removal pathways and products. Consequently, the potential toxicity of its application also needs to be evaluated. In this framework, we present a comparative study of Ti:Sapphire femtosecond laser irradiation, as a function of laser power and exposure time, on water dispersions of Pigment Green 7 (PG7) and the green tattoo ink Green Concentrate (GC), which contains PG7 as its coloring agent. The treated samples were subsequently analyzed via UV‒Vis spectroscopy, gas chromatography‒mass spectrometry (GC‒MS), SEM imaging and associated statistical analysis. We found that, on average, the discoloration efficacy of femtosecond laser treatment was comparable to that of nanosecond lasers as were the decomposition products. In fact, two primary types of fragments are produced, both of which are potentially harmful, resulting either from the decomposition of chlorinated phthalocyanine (i.e., PG7) or from the active chlorination of naphthalene impurities. However, the outcomes for the PG7 and GC treatments differed significantly from each other from several points of view. The spectral intensity patterns of GC and PG7 were distinct, depending on the treatment conditions, and showed linearity with power only in the case of GC. Additionally, the relative ratios of the fragment products differed significantly, with the production rate showing a linear dependence on power only in the case of GC and no discernible trend for PG7. Shape and size distribution of the generated particles were highly dependent on the type of sample. Femtosecond laser irradiation of GCs primarily produces nanoparticles with a homogeneous size distribution, which are typically considered nontoxic. Large aggregates also formed, exhibiting a regular shape. In contrast, PG7 yielded rods and needles with aspect ratios similar to those of toxic fibers.

Introduction: The new EU regulation on tattoo inks in force January 2022 in a hitherto unregulated market marks a historical change. The study aim was to register tattoo inks de facto used in studios before the new EU regulation and establish a historical reference to tattoo customer exposure, ink toxicology assessment, clinical complications, and the impact on tattooing businesses. Method: A tattooist-operated electronic system (InkBase) for ink registration required by law is used in Denmark since 2018. A local database in studios refers to a central database. Clients, sessions, ink bottles, brand name, and pigment color index (CI) are registered. Person’s data protection is respected. Tracing harmful inks is possible, with public warning. Results: Registrations from 108 studios employing about 700 tattooists were collected from March 2018 to 2019. 39,687 clients were tattooed in 50,604 sessions, using colors from 109,720 ink bottles. 10,833 were CI-labelled identifying the pigment. 98.1% of inks originated from USA. Detailed statistics on inks and pigments used are provided as a benchmark showing the spontaneous use and preference of “old” tattoo inks before the EU regulation compulsory to member states introduced dramatic restrictions difficult to follow. Conclusions: Denmark can, having detailed ink registration enforced by law and having a commonly used electronic registration system reporting to a central server, function as an index country in future surveillance of use of tattoo inks in studios, toxicology aspects and the impact of regulatory intervention on the tattooing industry, with a large sample of data collected in 2018-2019.

The widespread adoption of tattoos and permanent makeup across all social classes and age groups globally has led to an increase in reports of subsequent health problems. This article presents a systematic review aimed at investigating the potential health risks associated with body modifications (tattoos and permanent makeup), highlighting the need for further research and public education to bridge the gap in knowledge and ensure informed decision-making. A literature search was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. A comprehensive search was performed in the PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect databases for the period between 2014 and 2024. Several significant potential health risks associated with tattoos and permanent makeup were identified: disruption of the skin microbiome, inflammatory processes and infections, allergic reactions and oncological risks, toxicity of tattoo inks, insufficient hygiene, and inadequate aftercare. Despite the prevalence of tattoos, public awareness of the possible associated complications and health risks is low. There is a need for systematic identification and assessment of health and safety risks related to body modification services, as well as the introduction of guidelines to ensure that all necessary measures are taken to prevent health hazards for both clients and professionals performing these procedures.

Exposure to aromatic amines may occur via tobacco smoke, hair dyes or tattoo inks, but also in the workplace during certain manufacturing processes. As some aromatic amines are known or suspected carcinogens, human biomonitoring (HBM) is essential to assess their exposure. Aromatic amines were among the selected chemicals in HBM4EU, a European-wide project to harmonise and advance HBM within 30 European countries. For this purpose, the analytical comparability and accuracy of participating laboratories were assessed by a QA/QC programme comprising interlaboratory comparison investigations (ICIs) and external quality assurance schemes (EQUASs). This paper presents the evaluation process and discusses the results of three ICI/EQUAS rounds for the determination of aromatic amines in urine conducted in 2019 and 2020. The final evaluation included ten participants which analysed the following six targeted aromatic amines over three rounds: aniline, ortho-toluidine (TOL), 4,4'-methylenedianiline (MDA), 4,4'-methylenebis(2-chloroaniline) (MOCA), 2,4-diaminotoluene (2,4-TDA), and 2,6-diaminotoluene (2,6-TDA). Most participants achieved satisfactory and highly comparable results, although low quantification limits were required to quantify the parameters at the level of exposure in the general population. Hydrolysis of the sample followed by liquid-liquid extraction and subsequent analysis of the derivatised analytes by means of GC-MS/MS were preferred for the sensitive and precise determination of aromatic amines in urine. This QA/QC programme succeeded in establishing a network of laboratories with high analytical comparability and accuracy for the analysis of aromatic amines in Europe.

Introduction: The autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA) is a rare condition caused by an immune response associated with over-reactivity of the immune system, triggered by adjuvants. The most common adjuvants are aluminium salts but can also be bioimplants or infectious agents. It may lead to the development of various autoimmunologic diseases. Case Report: In the following article, we present the case of a 26-year-old woman who developed SLE likely induced by ASIA syndrome after the aesthetic medicine procedures. The patient was admitted because of arthralgia and fever. She also presented with a butterfly-shaped erythema on her face and erythematous and infiltrative skin lesions on the posterior surface of the thighs and buttocks. We performed numerous diagnostic tests, including laboratory tests, immunological tests, imaging diagnostics such as chest X-ray and USG of the abdomen and joints, and the biopsy of the skin lesion on the left thigh. The results of the diagnostic process led us to diagnose SLE. The patient fulfilled the ACR/EULAR 2019 classification criteria of the SLE. Laboratory results also led to the diagnosis of autoimmune haemolytic anaemia. Due to exposure to numerous adjuvants like tattoo ink, hyaluronic acid, and piercing and the development of the delayed inflammatory reaction (DIR) to hyaluronic acid (HAF), the patient also fulfilled the criteria of ASIA. In the treatment process we applied antibiotics, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), steroids, hydroxychloroquine, and cyclosporine. The treatment resulted in an improvement in the general condition, resolution of swelling and joint pain, and improvement in skin lesions. Conclusions: ASIA syndrome after bioimplantation is still underdiagnosed, probably due to ignorance or diagnostic difficulties, as symptoms are uncharacteristic and there is no immunological marker for this syndrome. In addition, as in the presented case, it can develop several years after the procedure, and it is difficult for both patient and physician to become aware of the connection. Early diagnosis requires a multidisciplinary approach and may require immunosuppressive treatment in specific cases.

Tattoo Ink Localization Before Targeted Dissection of Axillary Lymph Nodes: Frequency of Success and Associated Factors.

Tattooing has become a popular global trend in industrialised countries, with the highest prevalence rates of up to 30–40 % in the adult population younger than 40 years. Common tattoo inks may contain heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and primary aromatic amines, toxic if exceeding permissible limits. It is estimated that about 14.36 mg of ink is injected per cm2 of skin, at a depth of 1–3 mm. The injected pigment is internalised by neutrophils, fibroblasts, and macrophages or dendritic cells. About 60–90 % of the pigment is then transported to the lymph nodes via the lymphatic system and to other organs, such as the liver, spleen, and lung, through blood. Adverse reactions can be immediate (irritation, infection, inflammation of the skin), delayed (hypersensitivity reactions), and can result in long-term complications (fibrosis, granulomatous changes, systemic inflammation, and sometimes malignant diseases such as lymphoma). Pigments in tattooed skin can be identified by skin biopsy, chemical imaging, and histochemical and immunohistochemical analyses. Harmful effects of tattoo inks have been investigated ex vivo, in vitro, in vivo, and recently in silico. Studies in humans mainly refer to case reports, but there are no epidemiological studies that would evaluate the potential links between tattoos and cancer or other disorders. As the safety of people getting tattoos primarily depends on the quality of tattooing products, it is necessary to create a general regulatory framework.

Tattoos have been a ubiquitous phenomenon throughout history. Now, the demand for tattoo removal for aesthetic or practical reasons is growing rapidly. This study outlines the results of field investigations into the chemical and biological removal of tattoo inks (Hexadecachlorinate copper phthalocyanine-C32Cl16CuN8-CAS no° 1328-53-6). FTIR, Py-GC/MS, and NMR analyses yielded intriguing profiles pertaining to the primary chemical constituents, along with others of an ambiguous nature. A bioremoval protocol was developed on a pork rind surface to simulate human tattooing. Two previously studied microbial strains were included in this analysis: (i) a bacterial culture of Pseudomonas stutzeri 5190 DSMZ viable cells and (ii) a fungal culture of Alternaria infectoria strain NIS4, the latter already isolated and identified. A combination of physical, chemical, and microbiological analyses, along with microscopic observations, was conducted. In our experimental conditions, inocula from environmental samples (soil and compost) were capable of inducing changes in even trace organic matter (glycerin and additives in pigments) used as a binder in emulsifiers in tattoo inks. Furthermore, the two microbial strains demonstrated promising potential for removing green tattoo ink. Finally, wastewater effluents containing green ink were recovered via electrochemical treatment, and the environmental impact in terms of the CO2 equivalent of our experiments was assessed. The results are promising and warrant further investigation into the innovative biological and chemical removal of tattoo inks from human skin and wastewater, respectively.

Some tattoo inks in Europe contain banned pigments

Permanent makeup (PMU) is a popular form of tattooing applied to the eyebrows, eyelids, and lips for corrective and aesthetic purposes. It also has medical applications, such as reconstructing the breast areola, mimicking hair follicles on the head, and covering scars and vitiligo. Unlike body tattoos, PMU often requires reapplication to maintain color density and shape, as the pigments fade over time. This fading is likely due to the characteristics of PMU colorants rather than the application methods or apparatuses. The aim of our study was to assess the application depth of PMU colorants and tattoo ink after procedures. PMU colorants typically contain larger pigment particles in their composition compared to the nanoparticles found in traditional tattoo inks. We applied both tattoo ink and PMU colorants on SKH-1 mice using a PMU apparatus and a tattoo apparatus. To clarify the semi-permanent nature of PMU compared to the more permanent body tattoos, skin biopsies were performed at various intervals throughout this study. The results showed that PMU and tattoo ink were placed at approximately the same depth but exhibited key differences in behavior. PMU with larger inorganic pigments fades over time, while tattoos with smaller, stable organic pigments ensure permanence.

Abstract Tattoo pigment is expected to migrate beyond the skin to regional lymph nodes and the liver. Modern tattoo ink commonly contains metals that may pose a clinical problem during MRI examinations. This study aimed to investigate the biodistribution of iron oxide pigment to internal organs in mice. Moreover, when exposed to a static magnetic field, we studied whether any reactions followed in the tattooed skin. Twenty‐seven hairless C3.Cg‐Hrhr/TifBomTac mice were included; 20 were tattooed with iron oxide ink in a rectangular 3 cm2 pattern; seven were controls. Ten of the tattooed mice were exposed to a 3 T MRI scanner's static magnetic field. Following euthanasia, evaluations of dissected organs involved MRI T2*‐mapping, light microscopy (LM) and metal analysis. T2*‐mapping measures the relaxation times of hydrogen nuclei in water and fat, which may be affected by neighbouring ferrimagnetic particles, thus enabling the detection of iron oxide particles in organs. Elemental analysis detected a significant level of metals in the tattooed skin compared to controls, but no skin reactions occurred when exposed to a 3 T static magnetic field. No disparity was observed in the liver samples with metal analysis. T2* mapping found no significant difference between the two groups. Only minute clusters of pigment particles were observed in the liver by LM. Our results demonstrate a minimal systemic distribution of the iron oxide pigments to the liver, whereas the kidney and brain were unaffected. The static magnetic field did not trigger skin reactions in magnetic tattoos but may induce image artefacts during MRI.

P19-44 First-pass effect in skin during tattooing – a short-term clinical study on exposure and kinetics of soluble tattoo ink ingredients

Permanent Indian ink tattoos for breast cancer radiotherapy: A United Kingdom study of the emotional impact on patients following radiotherapy