Tattoo Ink Research Articles

Chronic skin exposure to nanoparticles (NPs) from air pollution, cosmetics, tattoo inks, and smart textiles is linked to adverse effects such as accelerated aging, dermatitis, eczema, and increased melanoma risk. However, the limited predictive power and physiological relevance of conventional in vitro models, combined with the absence of standardized protocols for assessing NP toxicity, remain a major challenge. To address these limitations, the development of skin-on-chip (SoC) systems provides a more physiologically relevant solution, surpassing the constraints of static skin cultures. Here, a novel SoC model with dynamic perfusion and a modular architecture suitable for epidermis-only (EoC) and full-thickness (FT) skin models isdeveloped. Under dynamic conditions, both models are metabolically active, exhibit enhanced barrier function, and display a morphology resembling native human skin. Exposure to titanium dioxide (TiO2) NPs led to a 32.4% decrease in barrier integrity, a 12.1% reduction in metabolic activity, a 2.9% increase in permeability, and histological evidence of tissue damage. These alterations are associated with an early moderate inflammatory response, as indicated by the upregulation of chemokines. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that the microfluidic device functions as a versatile toxicological tool, with the biological complexity of the FT SoC enhancing its sensitivity for nanotoxicology studies.

The increasing prevalence of tattoos and the frequent occurrence of adverse skin reactions, particularly from colored inks, highlight the urgent need for reliable analytical methods to identify potentially harmful substances in tattoo inks and tattooed skin. In this study, a novel, laser-based technique enabling combined molecular and elemental analysis is presented: Laser Ablation hyphenated to Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization-Mass Spectrometry (LA-APCI-MS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS/APCI-MS). This instrumental setup allows the simultaneous detection of organic and inorganic pigments as well as their metallic contaminants directly in solid samples. A newly developed spectral pigment libraries based on MS1 and MS2 data enables precise identification of organic pigments within complex matrices such as inks or skin sections. Using five commercially available tattoo inks, this new technique reliably identified nondeclared or even prohibited organic pigments and different metals. In skin biopsies from red tattoos with adverse reactions, different organic pigments and metals were localized via bioimaging, revealing distribution patterns that may help to uncover the causes of allergic responses. The introduced LA-ICP-MS/APCI-MS technique offers a rapid and powerful approach to obtain complementary information on organic pigments, inorganic compounds, and metals from a single sample. As such, it represents a significant advancement for investigating tattoo-related side effects, supporting risk assessment, and ensuring regulatory compliance.

Tattoo-associated uveitis is a potentially sight-threatening condition driven by a presumed immune reaction to tattoo ink. Case numbers may be rising as tattooing becomes more popular. Australian uveitis specialists collaborated to collect cases and better define this entity and its implications. Multicentre retrospective case review of collaborating uveitis specialists from January 2023 to January 2025. Following literature review, patients were recruited from public and private practices in Australian cities. Demographic information, clinical findings, investigations, treatment and disease course were collected. The majority of affected individuals (21/40, 52.5%) were young adults of Caucasian or European ethnicity (28/40, 70%) with a predominance of bilateral (38/40, 95%) and anterior (28/40, 70%) uveitis. Inflammation within tattoos was present in all cases, most commonly associated with black ink. Systemic treatment was needed in 27/40 (67.5%) of whom 25/40 (62.5%) required steroid-sparing immunosuppression, most commonly methotrexate. Biological DMARDs were required in 17/40 (42.5%). Only 10 (25%) patients were adequately treated with topical treatment alone and just 11/40 (27.5%) had enduring remission off treatment during the reporting period. Complications included cataracts, cystoid macular oedema, and glaucoma. Only 3 patients had no visual loss during the course of their care. Forty cases of tattoo-associated uveitis were identified, indicating that this previously rare condition has become a regular entity in Australian uveitis clinics in a population where 25% of people have tattoos. Vision was commonly affected, and 63% required long-term immunosuppression, including with biological DMARDs in 42%, making this a public eye health issue of concern.

Aims: This study investigates the composition of tattoo pigments to ensure their safe application in tattoo art, evaluating the viability of UV-Vis and FT-IR spectroscopy, coupled with chemometrics, for predicting pigment contents in tattoo inks. Background: Analyzing pigments in tattoo inks poses challenges in maintaining quality. This study addresses the difficulties by proposing the use of UV-Vis and FT-IR spectroscopy, along with chemometrics, as potential solutions for effective monitoring. Objective: The aim of this study was to determine the content of red (PR) 170/254 and pigment blue (PB) 15:3 in tattoo inks from diverse suppliers and examine the distinct chemical structures and existing impurities in the samples using UV-Vis and FT-IR spectroscopy, employing regression models for data analysis. Method: We collected UV-Vis and FT-IR spectra from the tattoo ink samples and utilized regression models for data analysis. We assessed correlations across spectrum areas, emphasizing coefficients of determination for cross-validation. Subsequently, we compared the results obtained from both spectroscopic methods in terms of pigment identity and evaluated the suitability of UV-Vis spectroscopy for analyzing changes in pigment concentration and structural evolution. Finally, we employed chemometric modeling to enhance predictions of FT-IR parameters, particularly in the functional group and fingerprint region of the spectra. Results: Significant correlations were observed across both UV-Vis and FT-IR spectrum areas, with coefficients of determination for cross-validation exceeding 0.7 for most parameters. Both spectroscopic methods yielded nearly identical results regarding pigment identity. UV-Vis spectroscopy proved to be a suitable method for analyzing changes in pigment concentration and structural evolution. Chemometric modeling enhanced predictions of FT-IR parameters, particularly in the functional group and fingerprint region of the spectra. Conclusion: The study underscores the significance of utilizing UV-Vis and FT-IR wavelengths from various suppliers to determine pigment structures in tattoo inks. The consistent and comparable results from both spectroscopic methods highlight their efficacy in characterizing pigments. UV-Vis spectroscopy, in particular, emerged as a valuable tool for assessing changes in pigment concentration and structural evolution. The improved predictions through chemometric modeling further emphasize the utility of these analytical approaches in ensuring the safe use of tattoo inks in the art of tattooing.

Abstract Background Benzene is a volatile organic compound widely used as a precursor in the chemical industry. It is classified as a Category 1A carcinogen and 1B mutagen under the CLP Regulation (EC No 1272/2008). Its toxic effects are well documented through occupational epidemiology and in vivo studies, highlighting risks even at low exposure levels. To address these concerns, the REACH Regulation (EC No 1907/2006) introduced strict limits on benzene in various matrices. Annex XVII restricts its use or placing on the market in substances or mixtures at concentrations between 0.00005% and 0.1% by weight in products intended for public sale. These measures follow a precautionary approach to minimize public exposure. Methods To assess compliance with current legislation for articles and cosmetic products, we developed and validated, according to ISO/IEC 17025, specific in-house methods based on Headspace Gas Chromatography coupled with Mass Spectrometry (HS-GC/MS). These methods were applied to matrices such as glues, toys, tattoo inks, textiles, e-liquids, scented mixtures and cosmetics. Results The HS-GC/MS methods proved sensitive and specific, enabling accurate benzene quantification. Performance characteristics included detection limits (0.000007-0.0018% w/w), quantification limits (0.000024-0.0059% w/w), intermediate precision (4.7-11.8%), recovery (91-110%), measurement uncertainty (10.5-19.9%), as well as good linearity, sensitivity, and specificity. The validated methods were then applied to commercial samples collected from Italian retail stores. Conclusions The integration of toxicological evidence into regulatory frameworks like REACH underscores the importance of aligning chemical safety with public health objectives. Reducing benzene exposure through restriction, monitoring, and substitution contributes to cancer prevention and highlights REACH's role in environmental health policy. Key messages • Validated HS-GC/MS methods enable precise benzene detection in consumer products, supporting REACH compliance and public health protection. • This work bridges toxicology and regulation, reinforcing the role of analytical science in reducing benzene exposure and preventing health risks.

Tattoo exposure and biomarkers of male fecundity: A cross-sectional study among young Danish males.

Despite new EU regulations, allergies to red ink tattoos remain an urgent public health problem. Red tattoo pigments continue to occur at a clinically relevant rate. This observation raises critical questions about the effectiveness, scope, and enforcement of the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) regulation. We argue that current tattoo ink restrictions fail to sufficiently protect European consumers from known allergens and that regulatory revisions are urgently needed.

The growing popularity of tattoos highlights the importance of careful regulation of tattoo inks to minimise health risks. In Switzerland, tattoo inks are subject to strict legal requirements based on food legislation, which are designed to ensure that they are sterile and harmless. The European Union has significantly tightened restrictions on substances in tattoo inks through Regulation (EU) 2020/2081 in order to increase safety. In contrast, the USA regulate tattoo inks under the supervision of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), but do not have specific pre-market controls for tattoo ink products. This comparison highlights different regulatory approaches in Switzerland, the EU and the USA and underlines the need for more harmonised global regulation to protect consumer health.

Background: Tattoo is common in rural areas signifying their traditions and beliefs whereas in urban areas tattooing is by choice. Q-switched (QS) lasers represent the gold standard in the treatment of tattoo removal. In this study, we report our experience with the QS Nd:YAG laser device, evaluating its effectiveness in black tattoo in a rural setup. Aim : To study the efficacy of Nd:YAG in increasing energy fluency in the removal of black tattoos. Method : A total of 16 patients with black tattoos were enrolled in this study. The operating settings were taken in increasing energy with fixed spot size and pulse duration starting from a minimum energy of 250 mJ. Patients were given treatment every 4 weeks until the Visual Analogue scale (VAS) score showed good results (50–75%) and were followed up after 6-month of the last treatment session. Patient satisfaction was assessed using a VAS and one dermatologist evaluated the aesthetic outcome based on pictures taken before and after treatment using Tattoo ink lightening (TIL). Results : Out of a total of 16 patients (14 males and 2 females), amateur tattoos were 14 (87.5%) and professional tattoos were 2(12.5%). The mean age of the patients was 24 ± 5.69 years. The most common Fitzpatrick skin type was IV ( n = 12, 75%) followed by V ( n = 3, 18.75%). The mean number of treatment sessions performed was 2.81 ± 1.27. The VAS showed an excellent and good response in 43.75% of patients and 56.25% showed complete removal of the tattoo. TIL showed an excellent and good response in 75% of patients and a clear response in 18.75% of patients. The side effects such as erythema and swelling were seen post-procedure in 100% ( n = 16) of patients and 6% ( n = 1) showed blister and ulcer formation. Conclusions : This is the only study where the effect of increasing energy fluency of Nd: YAG, starting with minimum energy, has been done in the rural Indian population. This study is able to show excellent results. The black tattoo seems to show excellent results with QS 1064 nm ND: YAG laser requiring fewer sessions and causing lesser side effects which decreases the treatment time and also reduces the chances of lost to follow up.

Guidance recently released by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regarding tattoo inks describes tattooing as an injection process, but is injection the correct terminology to use when describing tattooing? This perspective aims to provide a brief overview of the core mechanics and science behind injection and tattoo processes, as well as emphasize the importance of using the correct terminology when referencing tattoos and the act of tattooing moving forward. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Due to a change in the FDA regulatory framework around cosmetics in December 2022, for the first time the FDA is in the process of actively regulating tattoo inks. Central to how tattoos will be regulated is whether tattoos and tattooing should be considered an injectable process. If tattoos are injectables, then tattoo inks would be considered within a medical device framework leading to a radical alteration tattoo industry in the US and globally. This perspective surveys the literature to understand what it means for something to be "injected" and then compares that to the state-of-the-art understanding about how tattoos are deposited in the skin. Based on this analysis, it is clear that tattooing should not be described as an injection process.

Surgical, cosmetic, and tattooing procedures can lead to nontuberculous mycobacterium skin and soft tissue infections. Eight Oregonians developed Mycobacterium immunogenum infections after receiving tattoos from the same artist. Tattoo ink was likely contaminated by self-prepared diluent. Nontuberculous mycobacteria reportability and surveillance are essential to identify outbreaks amenable to public health intervention.

Harmful beauty - Temporal profile of urinary phthalate metabolites in tattooed volunteers from Slovakia.

Tattoo inks and carcinogenic risk: Current evidence and regulatory gaps.

Since 2015, the number of articles on tattoo inks has increased significantly in recent years as more and more people choose to decorate their bodies. The introductory section presents a multifaceted psychological and social perspective. Attitudes toward tattoos in different parts of the world are taken into account, as well as the approach to the topic by different social groups. It has changed over the years and depending on the wealth of a given group. The main part is an overview of tattoo ink tests, which mainly focus on the safety of the products used, direct tests and potential allergens contained in the composition. The information contained can be summed up by the great need for ongoing implementation of further regulations in order to protect people using the services of tattooists.

Tattoos can cause various dermatological complications, such as infections, contact dermatitis, lichenoid reactions, and granulomatous reactions. It is crucial for general practitioners and dermatologists to be informed about these complications to properly prevent, recognize, and treat patients. This is a case of tattoo pseudolymphoma appearing months after the tattoo was done, in the areas corresponding to the red ink. Cutaneous pseudolymphoma is a reactive lymphocytic proliferation that mimics a cutaneous lymphoma. Although the pathophysiology is uncertain, red pigment has been associated with higher complication rates. The lack of specific regulation in Chile and contamination in tattoo inks highlight the need for better standards. The complication presents as papules and plaques that may resolve spontaneously or with treatment. Prevention is recommended through the choice of reputable tattoo artists and safe inks.

Tattoo inks contain several substances, including organic and inorganic pigments, additives, and solvents, which may pose a health risk to not only the tattooed skin but also to other parts of the human body due to intradermal exposure. Substances in tattoo inks are regulated by entry 75 in Annex XVII of REACH Regulation (EC) No. 1907/2006. However, despite these legal requirements, a well-defined criterion for the safety assessment of tattoo inks remains lacking. In this context, 2021 BfR opinion titled "Tattoo inks: minimum requirements and test methods" proposed a comprehensive risk assessment of pigments using invitro/in-chemico data in accordance with OECD Guidelines and CLP Regulations. In the absence of experimental data, new approach methodologies (NAMs) may be used for data-gap filling. Therefore, this work evaluates the applicability of in silico NAMs for data-gap filling for a list of tattoo ink ingredients identified by the Joint Research Centre (JRC) and BfR for genotoxicity assessment. Experimental invitro genotoxicity data were acquired from the International Uniform Chemical Information Database (IUCLID) which makes non-confidential REACH Study Results publicly accessible. The specific aims of this analysis were the evaluation of in silico genotoxicity predictions from publicly available QSAR tools and structural alerts, the development and validation of new QSAR models specific to tattoo ink ingredients, and the application of in silico models for categorization and prioritization of data-poor ingredients for further screening. Based on the workflow developed in this study, 4 high priority, 18 medium priority, and 2 low priority substances were identified for further assessment.

The prevalence of tattoos in western countries is about 20%. Tattoo ink may contain carcinogenic compounds. The aim of this study was to investigate if tattoo exposure is associated with an increased risk of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma in individuals. In this population-based case-control study, 2857 cases aged 20 to 60 years, diagnosed between 2014 and 2017, were identified in the Swedish Cancer Registry. Statistics Sweden identified 3 random age- and sex-matched controls per case from the Swedish Total Population Register using incidence-density sampling. In 2019, participants answered a questionnaire regarding lifestyle factors, including tattoos and sun habits. We used logistic regression to investigate if tattoo exposure was associated with the relative risk of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. 61% of the cases and 53% of the controls replied to the questionnaire. Among the 1600 cases and the 4551 controls that participated, 15.1% and 17.6% had at least one tattoo before the index date. We found no increased risk of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma in tattooed compared with non-tattooed individuals (incidence rate ratio, 0.95; 95% confidence interval, 0.78–1.15). Tattoo exposure was not associated with the risk of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma in this first study of the association. However, more epidemiologic studies are needed before consensus regarding a lack of association can be reached.

Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instruments are an indispensable tool in industrial research and quality control. However, the intrinsically low spin polarization at low magnetic fields severely limits their detection sensitivity and measurement throughput, preventing their widespread use in biomedical analysis. Overhauser dynamic nuclear polarization (ODNP) effectively addresses this problem by transferring the spin polarization from free electrons to protons, significantly enhancing sensitivity. In this paper, we explore the potential of using ODNP for signal enhancement in a custom-designed portable chip-based DNP-enhanced NMR platform, which is centered around a miniaturized microwave (MW) transmitter, a custom-designed NMR-on-a-chip transceiver, and two application-specific ODNP probes. The MW transmitter provides frequency synthesis, signal modulation, and power amplification, providing sufficient output power for efficient polarization transfer. The NMR-on-a-chip transceiver combines a radio frequency (RF) transmitter with a fully differential quadrature receiver, providing pulsed excitation and NMR signal down-conversion and amplification. Two custom-designed ODNP probes are used for proof-of-concept DNP-enhanced NMR relaxometry and spectroscopy measurements. The presented chip-based ODNP platform achieves a maximum MW output power of , resulting in a signal enhancement of using the relaxometry ODNP probe with of non-degassed TEMPOL solution, and an enhancement of with the spectroscopy ODNP probe using of the same solution. The proton polarization was increased from to at a low field of . Proof-of-concept measurements on radical-doped tattoo inks and acetic acid verify the potential of our chip-based ODNP platform for the analysis of biologically and medically relevant parameters such as relaxation times, chemical shifts, and hyperfine interactions.

Highly stable and safe biocompatible black tattoo ink based on Pluronic polymer-coated carbon black nanoparticles

Causes, patterns, and epidemiology of tattoo-associated infections since 1820.