This study sought to investigate the willingness of immigrant primary school children to communicate in Turkish as the target language. The research was conducted with immigrant students in the fourth grade of primary school, selected using a convenience sampling method during the 2022–2023 academic year. Given the lack of a measurement tool specifically developed for this target group, a target language willingness to communicate (TLWTC) scale was developed, encompassing various communication styles including listening, reading, speaking, and writing. The exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis results indicated that the scale exhibits a three-factor structure, comprising motivation, self-confidence, and developmental effort, and demonstrates good fit indices. It uniquely identifies leisure activities as indicators of developmental effort as one of the significant dimensions of willingness to communicate in the target language. Subsequently, the TLWTC levels of students and differences based on gender, native alphabet, school type, length of residence, and Turkish-speaking family members were examined. The findings revealed that students exhibited moderate-to-high TLWTC, with no differences based on gender; however, differences were observed based on native alphabet, school type, duration of residence, and the presence of Turkish-speaking family members. The developed TLWTC scale within the migration context may significantly contribute to the research agenda on willingness to communicate in a second language. The findings may provide valuable insights for researchers, administrators, and educators regarding the TLWTC of immigrant primary school students, a topic that has not yet been explored.

Through the lens of Applied Linguistics, this current paper explores and synthesizes findings regarding the interplay between the use and development of the target language of the mobility experience and students’ sociocultural and psychological adaptation to the new environment. It does so by adopting a systematic narrative approach. This approach facilitates a wide exploration of the topic, encompassing multiple methodologies and contexts in a non-prescriptive manner. Following an initial search yielding 17,942 returns, 37 papers were deemed suitable for inclusion in the review. Findings firstly indicate that the role of the target language is under-represented in the literature. However, the papers under review highlight the centrality of language issues in erecting barriers to and facilitating adaptation, especially regarding preparation for mobility, relationship building during the sojourn and learner internal factors. It also reveals gaps in the literature regarding the role of technology and the impact of discrimination. Abstract in Spanish En el marco de la Lingüística Aplicada, este artículo explora y sintetiza hallazgos sobre la interacción entre el uso y el desarrollo de la lengua meta durante experiencias de movilidad, así como la adaptación sociocultural y psicológica de los estudiantes al nuevo entorno. Para ello, se adopta un enfoque narrativo sistemático que permite una exploración exhaustiva del tema, integrando múltiples metodologías y contextos desde una perspectiva no prescriptiva. Tras una búsqueda inicial que arrojó 17.942 resultados, se seleccionaron 37 artículos para su inclusión en la revisión. Los resultados indican, en primer lugar, que el papel de la lengua meta se encuentra insuficientemente representado en los trabajos publicados. No obstante, los estudios analizados ponen de relieve la centralidad de los factores lingüísticos tanto en la generación de barreras como en la facilitación de los procesos de adaptación, especialmente en lo relativo a la preparación para la movilidad, el establecimiento de relaciones durante la estancia en el extranjero y las características individuales del estudiante. Asimismo, la revisión identifica lagunas relevantes en investigaciones previas, en particular en lo que respecta al papel de la tecnología y al impacto de la discriminación.

This study examines the phenomenon of syntactic interference arising from the structural differences between Indonesian (L1) and German (L2) in compositions written by B1-level students. The primary objective was to systematically identify, categorize, and analyze the specific forms of negative transfer. Utilizing the error analysis framework established by Corder and James, the data comprising 21 student compositions, were rigorously classified into systematic errors and incidental mistakes. The analysis revealed 15 distinct types of syntactic interference, predominantly involving critical German structures such as verb conjugation, word order (in both main and subordinate clauses), and the use of prepositions. The most frequently occurring form of negative transfer was observed in German verb conjugation errors. The overwhelming classification of observed instances as errors confirms a deep-seated negative transfer from the mother tongue to the target language system. These findings possess significant educational value, as they precisely map the areas where Indonesian speakers require the most targeted linguistic intervention. The results strongly recommend the integration of a contrastive learning approach and emphasize the urgent need for reinforcement activities that specifically build syntactic awareness in German instruction. This research serves as an evidence-based tool for practitioners, guiding the refinement of curriculum and pedagogical strategies to effectively minimize recurrent interference and enhance the precision of L2 acquisition at the intermediate level.

The research aims to identify optimal methods for rendering English dialectal speech in the translation of British films into Russian. The article examines two British film texts where characters’ dialectal speech serves as a crucial element of their artistic image, alongside their Russian voice-over translations. The authors analyze the specific features of several dialects (Brummie, Cockney, Scottish, and West Country), their cinematic implementation for characterization, and the techniques used to convey dialectal nuances in voice-over. The scientific novelty of the study lies in identifying specific phonational tools for translating the Brummie and Cockney dialects into Russian within an audiovisual text: for Cockney, the use of a rapid, rhythmic speech tempo with emphatic stress on specific words is found to be effective, while for Brummie, the imitation of speech monotony is proposed. The results show that a discursive-pragmatic approach, combined with traditional translation techniques and strategies (such as adaptation and standardization), successfully preserves the character’s dialectal identity. Furthermore, due to the multimodality and multichannel nature of film material, linguistic means in the target language are not always strictly necessary, as the medium provides compensatory para- and extralinguistic tools through its visual and auditory tracks.

This research examines the translation techniques used to transfer legal culture to the Criminal Offences (Sentencing and Execution) Act 2017 of Nepal, focusing on the conveyance of sentencing and execution principles to the criminal justice system. The study claims that the source language (SL) legal culture can be transferred to the target language (TL) using various translation techniques, which are determined by the nature of the text, the purpose of translation, and the readers' knowledge of comparative laws and legal systems, and explores the translation techniques applied to transfer the English penal culture to the mentioned law. It reviews the translation techniques used in words, sentences, grammar, and text at both the linguistic and extra-linguistic cultural levels using the translation technique of Vinay and Darbelnet. The significance of the study is for translation students and novice translators who learn how translation techniques are used to transfer culture from one language and legal system to another. This search concludes that competence in translation techniques enables translators to transfer the SL culture into the TL.

The conformance testing of programming language implementations is crucial to support correct and consistent execution environments. Researchers often use coverage information in the mechanized language specification to generate or check the quality of conformance tests. Since specifications use inductive definitions to describe the semantics of language features, traditional graph coverage criteria for software can still be applied. However, they may not produce high-quality conformance tests because language implementations often have specialized execution paths for different features, even when their semantics descriptions use the same functions. Traditional graph coverage may not distinguish test requirements of such language features, degrading conformance testing quality. Similarly, it may not distinguish test requirements of different parts of the same language feature if their semantics use the same functions. We introduce feature-sensitive (FS) coverage as a novel coverage criterion for generating high-quality conformance tests for language implementations. The core idea is to enhance traditional graph coverage by incorporating the innermost enclosing language features. To further improve the quality of conformance tests, we extend this approach to feature-call-path-sensitive (FCPS) coverage and its \(k\) -limiting variant. To assess the effectiveness of the new coverage criteria, we apply them to the mechanized JavaScript specification for ES13 and extend JEST, a state-of-the-art JavaScript conformance test synthesizer. Using five coverage criteria, our tool synthesizes 237,981 conformance tests for ES13 in 50 hours. The tool detected 157 conformance bugs (45 in engines and 112 in transpilers), 139 confirmed by the developers, and 136 newly discovered bugs. However, a higher \(k\) value may lead to an excessive number of tests. To resolve this issue, we present a selective FS/FCPS that utilizes the key feature stacks for the target language implementation. The selective approach for transpiler conformance testing with ECMA-262 for ES15 successfully reduces the number of synthesized tests by 70.7% on average. Still, it detects 53 bugs compared to 57 bugs detected by the non-selective approach.

This study entitled Translation Strategies of the Cultural Words in Disney Songs aims to analyse the translation strategies used in translating cultural words found in selected Disney songs from English into Indonesian. The objectives of this study are to identify types of cultural words based on Newmark’s cultural categories and to determine Newmark’s translation strategies used in translating selected cultural words. This study uses a descriptive qualitative method. Based on the results, the translator applies borrowing, modulation, cultural equivalence, descriptive equivalence strategies to convey cultural concepts effectively. The dominant strategy in this research is Descriptive Equivalent. This strategy is used because many cultural words in the source language are culturally specific and it is difficult to translate them directly. Meanwhile, material culture is the dominant category of cultural words that are found in this study. This shows that natural aspects such as traditional food, clothing, houses, tools, and other physical objects have a significant role in representing cultural identity of the songs. These material cultural words are mostly translated using the descriptive equivalent strategy to make the translated version reserve the natural meanings conveyed to the target language. This study provides insight into cultural translation particularly in song lyrics and serves as a reference for translators who are dealing with texts that are rich with cultural words.

The increasing prevalence of multilingual conferences and meetings has intensified the need for accurate communication, reliable documentation, and inclusive accessibility across diverse linguistic groups. Conventional approaches based on manual transcription, speaker identification, and translation are inefficient, costly, and susceptible to errors caused by overlapping speech, accents, background noise, and domain-specific terminology. To overcome these limitations, this work presents an AI-driven framework that integrates Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR), speaker diarization, and Neural Machine Translation (NMT). The system automatically converts spoken audio into text, identifies and segments individual speakers, and translates the content into multiple target languages while preserving semantic meaning and contextual accuracy. The resulting speaker-labeled multilingual transcripts support effective knowledge management, decision-making, and post-meeting analysis. By automating end-to-end meeting content processing, the proposed approach enhances efficiency, reduces human effort, improves accuracy, and promotes inclusive participation in academic, corporate, and international communication settings.

Documentaries are an important medium for recording Chinese culture, and subtitle translation plays a key role in their cross-cultural dissemination. Chinese cultural documentaries often contain culture-loaded words with distinctive national characteristics, for which the target language lacks equivalents, creating translation challenges. Taking the intangible cultural heritage (ICH) documentary The Magical Craftsmanship of Suzhou as a case, and from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, this paper analyzes the subtitle translation of four categories of culture-loaded words and finds that ecological and material culture-loaded words predominantly adopt foreignization strategies, preserving traditional cultural imagery and regional characteristics through transliteration or literal translation; by contrast, social and linguistic culture-loaded words more often employ domestication strategies, using free translation or generalization to reduce comprehension difficulty and to accommodate the spatiotemporal constraints of subtitles. The two translation strategies exhibit a complementary relationship in practice. This paper argues that subtitle translation for documentaries should flexibly apply domestication and foreignization according to context, achieving a dynamic balance between preserving cultural information and facilitating audience comprehension, so as to enhance the international communication of Chinese culture.

This study explores the implementation of translation techniques to enhance students’ vocabulary mastery in an Indonesian vocational school context. The research was conducted with eleventh-grade students at one of the state vocational schools in Palu, Indonesia focusing on three-word classes: nouns, verbs, and adjectives as essential components of English proficiency. Employing a quasi-experimental design, two groups were involved: an experimental class taught using translation-based strategies and a control class following the standard curriculum. Vocabulary mastery was measured through a researchers-developed test consisting of multiple-choice and fill-in-the-blank items. Instruction in the experimental group integrated literal and transposition translation techniques, combined with contextual reading and guided practice. The findings revealed that students exposed to translation techniques demonstrated significant improvement in vocabulary comprehension, retention, and contextual usage compared to the control group. The study concludes that translation serves as a practical and pedagogical tool for vocational education, bridging learners’ native and target languages while fostering confidence and engagement. Implications highlight the importance of integrating translation into English instruction for vocational students, as it supports both academic achievement and workplace readiness. These results provide valuable insights for teachers, curriculum developers, and future researchers seeking innovative strategies to strengthen vocabulary instruction in applied educational settings.

In the context of language learning, including Mandarin education in Indonesia, digital literacy provides substantial benefits such as broader access to diverse learning resources, interactive learning opportunities, and more personalized learning experiences, while vocabulary mastery remains a fundamental component of language acquisition because it underpins learners’ ability to comprehend and use the target language effectively. However, although digital literacy has been widely examined in general educational settings, empirical evidence that specifically links digital literacy to HSK Level 3 (三级) vocabulary mastery (三级的生词) among first-year Mandarin students remains limited; therefore, this study addresses this gap by investigating (1) students’ digital literacy levels, (2) their mastery of HSK 3 vocabulary, and (3) the relationship between the two variables among Mandarin Language Study Program students. Using a quantitative survey design, primary numerical data were collected from 205 respondents and analyzed statistically. The results indicate that digital literacy significantly predicts HSK 3 vocabulary mastery (p < 0.05) and demonstrates substantial explanatory power: based on the proportion of regression sum of squares to total sum of squares (13,093.326 / 15,307.395), the model accounts for approximately 85.5% of the variance in vocabulary mastery, with strong overall model fit (F = 1200.480). These findings suggest that higher digital literacy is associated with better HSK 3 vocabulary mastery, highlighting digital literacy as a key factor in supporting successful Mandarin learning in digitally mediated environments and providing evidence to inform more targeted digital-literacy strengthening to optimize students’ use of learning applications, educational videos, and digital dictionaries.

This study selects excerpts from Chapters 10–14 of the English novel The Little Bookshop by the Sea as the research corpus, focusing on translation strategies for healing narratives. Guided primarily by Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and supplemented by Newmark's Communicative Translation Theory, the study identifies three core challenges: the nuanced rendering of emotional euphemisms, the cross-cultural transfer of idioms and metaphors, and the adaptation of culture-specific expressions. By comparing literal and free translation examples, the paper proposes targeted translation methods, including domestication-oriented adaptation for the target language culture, imagery reconstruction, pragmatic logic adjustment, and contextual restoration, and attempts to examine the feasibility of these strategies in conveying the emotional resonance of healing narratives.

The current research examines the perceptions of ESL teachers towards translanguaging as a pedagogical practice in secondary school classrooms in District Bahawalpur, Pakistan. Although institutional policies have required English as the only language of instruction, translanguaging, or the strategic and intentional use of the first language (L1) of learners in addition to the target language, has become a common instructional practice among ESL teachers in multilingual settings. Since a significant percentage of Pakistani school students show low levels of English language proficiency and often feel anxious when learning a second language, it is of significant pedagogical and policy interest to learn how teachers perceive and use translanguaging. The research design was a quantitative descriptive study, where the data were gathered using a purposive sample of 50 English language teachers in secondary schools (25 males and 25 females) who were non-native English speakers and had over five years of professional teaching experience. The main data collection tool was a close-ended Likert-scale questionnaire. The results indicate that the perceptions of teachers towards translanguaging are mostly positive: 96% of the participants agreed or strongly agreed that L1 use helps students with low English proficiency, and 72% strongly agreed that translanguaging enhances positive teacher-student relationships. Moreover, 57% of the respondents said that they used both Urdu and English as the medium of instruction, and only 16% said they used English only. The findings also show that teachers consider translanguaging especially significant in explaining grammatical rules, with 88% of them agreeing or strongly agreeing that it should be used to explain grammatical rules. In general, the research finds that translanguaging is an effective, contextually sensitive, and affectively supportive pedagogical practice in Pakistani ESL classrooms, and that national language education policy should be revised to represent the multilingual realities of classroom practice more accurately.

This study aims to investigate the types, functions, and language distribution of classroom language used by Grade VII English teachers at SMPN 13 Mataram. Employing a qualitative case study design, data were collected through non-participant observations, audio-video recordings, and semi-structured interviews with two teachers. The analysis followed Miles and Huberman’s interactive model. Findings reveal that teachers employed two major types of classroom language based on Hughes’ framework: instructional talk (49.8%) and managerial talk (50.2%). Instructional talk encompassed explaining, questioning, eliciting, checking understanding, giving feedback, and directing students, while managerial talk included opening routines, giving instructions and directions, praise, attendance checking, attention getters, and other regulatory expressions. In terms of function, classroom language predominantly served pedagogical purposes (78%), particularly instructional-managerial and language modelling functions, with social functions accounting for 22%. Regarding language choice, Indonesian was most dominant (43%), followed by English (34%) and mixed code-switching (21%), especially during core instructional activities to ensure comprehensible input. English was mainly used for routines, simple instructions, and modeling. The findings indicate that teachers strategically balance first language support and target language exposure to facilitate comprehension and participation. Future research should examine the longitudinal impact of classroom language patterns on students’ speaking proficiency and communicative competence.

This paper critically examines the term-creation strategies and quality of medical terms included in a Shona specialised dictionary, Denhe reDuramazwi rezveUtano neUrapi (Shona Medical Encyclopaedia). This study argues that translators and lexicographers have a number of translation or terminology development strategies they can apply to bridge the lexical gap between source and a target language. Furthermore, it argues that there is a need to evaluate the quality, accuracy, readability and acceptability of these terms for users. This study is guided by the communicative theory of terminology as proposed by Cabré (2003). This theory views terminology as dynamic and context-dependent, and it focuses on the way terms are created, transmitted and interpreted in real communicative situations. Data were gathered through in-depth interviews with lexicographers, translators, health professionals and end users, together with discourse analysis of the medical terms dictionary. Findings reveal that borrowing, compounding, coining, descriptive phrases and semantic extension were used to develop terms in the Shona Medical Encyclopaedia. It was also found that, although considerable progress has been made to enrich the Shona biomedical lexicon, when compared to borrowed or transliterated terms, many coined or compounded terms struggle to gain traction. The study recommends orthographic reform to strengthen the scientific expressiveness of indigenous languages, alongside the establishment of a national terminology board to coordinate and standardise terminology development in Zimbabwean indigenous languages.

This study focuses on ESL learners' attitudes towards code-switching in multilingual classroom. To explore this issue, BS English students of District Rahim Yar Khan were taken as the target group. The research is aimed at identifying the way students perceive code-switching as a teaching strategy, the benefits that they associate with it, as well as the problems they think it may engender in the course of language learning process. A quantitative solution was adopted and data was collected using a questionnaire with a structured Likert-scale items, which were distributed to the undergraduate students. The results suggest that most learners have a generally positive attitude towards code-switching, especially when it comes to being able to better understand, reducing the anxiety in class and even facilitating active participation in discussions. However, others also report to be worried about the negative effects of code-switching because it may not allow sufficient English language exposure and retards the acquisition of language competence. The analysis additionally highlights differences in attitudes depending on gender and sociocultural background and implies that learner identity influences the interpretation of multiple languages in an academic context. Overall, the study emphasises the pedagogical value of code-switching when used purposefully, but also highlights the importance of balanced teaching practices that promote comprehension as well as meaningful immersion in the target language. These findings have some useful implications for language teachers and policy makers operating in linguistically diverse education contexts.

Abstract Research on grammatical gender in bilinguals has mostly examined L1 effects on L2, with less focus on reverse influence or individual differences. Using visual world eye-tracking, we tested bidirectional interactions between Polish (L1) and German (L2) gender in 57 late unbalanced Polish–German bilinguals. Participants performed spoken word recognition in both languages with picture pairs whose nouns shared gender in the target language, with targets either congruent or incongruent with the other language’s gender. We also measured gender-representation stability, operationalised as mean accuracy and certainty in gender assignment. Mixed-effects analyses revealed significant gender congruency effects in both languages, which were stronger among participants with lower mean assignment accuracy. In L2 German, effects were additionally modulated by certainty. Gender congruency effects in L1 were overall weaker than in L2. These findings suggest integrated cross-language gender representations, modulated by representational stability, and are discussed within parasitic accounts of the bilingual lexicon.

Teaching the grammar of a target language can be a daunting task for any language teacher (Thornbury, 1999;Swan, 2005), regardless of the language in question, the educational context in which grammar is taught and learned, or the teacher's years of training (Kumayas & Lengkoan, 2023).This is mainly because teaching grammar demands a significant personal effort from the teacher, as it requires them to bridge prescriptive grammar rules and their practical application, manage student engagement, and present complex information on grammar in accessible and context-rich ways.Learners, on the other hand, must not only learn grammar rules but also internalize them to reach fluency and accuracy in terms of their usage.The teacher has to facilitate this process, and it takes time, often longer than expected.With the increased integration of technology into the language classroom, teachers are now being confronted with a new challenge: using technology for teaching grammar.Teaching grammar while facilitating effective grammar learning can be exhausting, particularly in contexts where grammar is taught and learned as a second language (Frodesen & Holten, 2003;Nanquil, 2021).A fresh perspective to approaching pedagogical grammar in the modern second language classroom, therefore, can benefit those teachers genuinely seeking practical advice.For this purpose, Practical Grammar Teaching for the Second Language Classroom can be an ideal choice.The text is divided into three thematic sections: Section 1: Grammar for Language Teaching; Section 2. Grammar for Writing; and Section 3. Grammar and Technology.This tripartite structure enables the text to explore three important aspects of teaching and learning grammar in the modern second language classroom: how to, and the best ways to, teach grammar; how to teach and learn to write better using accurate grammatical constructions; and how grammar can be taught and learned with the aid of new technologies.Section 1 comprises four chapters: "Juggling and Keeping Your Balance: Models of Grammar Teaching" by Penny Ur; "Grammar in Use" by Brain Tomlinson; "How is Grammar Learned?A Vocabulary Learning Perspective" by Paul Nation; "Developing Multilingual Students' Grammar Knowledge and Use through Content-Based Instruction" by Jan Frodesen.The text begins with an exploration of some of the models that can be employed to map target grammar lessons.In addition, the expert authorship of the section draws the reader's attention to the importance of prioritizing the grammar rules currently in use while exemplifying their usage when teaching and getting the learners to use the learned grammar for meaningful tasks.The section also explores learning grammar from a vocabulary learning perspective and discusses developing the grammatical competency of multilingual learners through content-based teaching.Section 2 features four chapters: "Teaching Grammar in the L2 Writing Class: Why, How, and When" by Dana Ferris; "How to Select Grammar for Teaching (or Not): Based on Research" by Eli Hinkel; "Functional Grammar: A Commonsense Approach for Effective Writing Instruction" by Mara Estela Brisk; "Engaging with Noun Phrases in EAP: The Missing Grammatical Link" by Averil Coxhead and Oliver James Ballance.As this section is devoted to connecting grammar teaching with writing instruction, the chapters explore the best practices for integrating grammar instruction into writing activities.By emphasizing the relationship between grammatical knowledge and effective writing, these chapters aim to equip the reader with strategies that enhance students' writing skills while reinforcing their contextual understanding of second language grammar.Section 3 contains three chapters: "Using Technology to Teach Difficult Grammar" by Maggie Sokolik; "Using Technology to Improve Language Learners' Accuracy" by Greg Kessler; "Using Corpora for Teaching Grammar" by Dilin Liu, Yaochen Deng, and Shuqiong Wu.The three chapters featured in this final section connect the reader with some of the recent developments in the field of second language teaching and learning.This includes the use of Generative AI (GenAI) tools such as ChatGPT and data-driven learning approaches such as language corpora to teach target grammar

Theories of learning are integral parts of second language instruction. They provide frameworks that teachers use to control the learners' behavior, meet their needs, and learning styles. This improves their discipline and performance in the target language. The current article discusses one of the learning theories in education: Bruner's constructivist learning theory. It discussed its tenets and how they could be applied in the teaching of Kiswahili. The purpose was to provide the necessary information that would fill the gap between theory and practice in the teaching of Kiswahili as a second language.

A workforce of foreign workers, mainly from Southeast Asia (SEA), is increasing because of an aging society and a declining birthrate. However, there are a few hospitals that can accept them. In this study, we evaluated whether SEA persons can understand medication-related information translated from Japanese into SEA languages using Google Translate. The study was a questionnaire survey of simulated cases. Information on simulated cases in Japanese was translated into each target language using Google Translate. We set the answer to the questionnaire based on the simulated cases. Participants' backgrounds and answers to the questionnaire were aggregated for each target language and category. The participants were 24 people from Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Burma. Comprehension outcomes differed across medications and information types. While understanding of main effects and side effects was generally adequate, comprehension of medication usage was limited, particularly for loxoprofen, with substantial variation across language groups. It's challenging to communicate medical information accurately to the SEA patients when relying solely on Google Translate. Therefore, we may need to provide medication guidance orally to improve and enhance medication-related information, even if we cannot speak SEA languages.