Target Hazard Quotient Values Research Articles

Selenium content in milk and dairy products: Estimation of the daily intake and assessment of the potential risk to public health.

Selenium content in milk and dairy products: Estimation of the daily intake and assessment of the potential risk to public health.

Arsenic species in coastal marine fish species from the Southwest Atlantic Ocean: Human health risk implications.

Arsenic species in coastal marine fish species from the Southwest Atlantic Ocean: Human health risk implications.

Assessment of Heavy Metal Concentrations in Smoked Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and Grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus) from Ondo State, Nigeria

Fish and meat are classified as a protein food source, important for tissue building and repair and very protein and a major part of a nutritional meal. This study assessed the concentrations of iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd) and chromium in Clarias gariepinus and Thryonomys swinderianus, estimated the daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ) and hazard index (HI) of heavy metals in the fish and bush meat and; compare the obtained concentration level with the World Health Organisation (WHO). The digestate of the C. gariepinus and T. swinderianus was examined for heavy metals using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). The results showed that Fe in the fish ranged from 149.0±7.762-155.0±5.099 mg/kg, while that of T. swinderianus ranged from 115.0±2.160-117±2.450 mg/kg. The concentrations of Fe exceeded the WHO limits of 100 mg/kg. The concentrations of Mn in C. gariepinus ranged from 1.0±0.817-2.0±0.817 mg/kg and in T. swinderianus from 2.03±0.817-3.00±1.414mg/kg. The result also exceeded the Mn limit of 1 mg/kg and 0.0094mg/kg. Nickle ranged from 0.00±0.00-1.00±1.414 mg/kg in fish and while in grasscutter, the concentrations were below the equipment detection limit of 0.008 mg/kg. The concentrations of Cd and Cr were below the equipment detection limits of 0.0028 and 0.005 mg/kg. The average EDI in both adult and children in fish and grasscutter in Fe and Mn were higher than their reference doses of Fe 0.007kg/person/day and 0.00014kg/person/day respectively, also the order of EDI in both fish and grasscutter was Fe>Mn>Ni>Cr>Cd. The THQ and HI values were less than 1, implying no carcinogenic effects on the consumers. This study concludes that heavy metal pollutants were detected in the smoked fish and grasscutter but recommends further study on the same site, as well as enlightening the fish and grasscutter sellers on the nature of materials that are suitable for smoking and the health risks associated with heavy metals.

Concentration and Potential Non-Carcinogenic and Carcinogenic Health Risk Assessment of Metals in Locally Grown Vegetables.

Heavy metal contamination in food has become a significant global food safety concern. This study assessed the concentrations of As, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, K, Mg, Na, Ni, Se, Pb, and Zn in 13 locally grown vegetables using microwave-assisted acid digestion and ICP-MS. The potential human health risks associated with their consumption were also evaluated. Vegetable samples were collected from the local farmer's market in Grand Forks, North Dakota. The mean levels (μg/g) of Na, Mg, K, Ca, Fe, Se, Mn, Cu, Zn, Co, Hg, Cr, Ni, As, Cd, and Pb were 1001, 2935, 30474, 686.0, 52.90, 0.171, 37.63, 4.936, 21.33, 0.069, 0.0030, 0.049, 0.736, 0.083, 0.298, and 0.019, respectively, having the following decreasing trend: K > Mg > Na > Ca > Fe > Mn > Zn > Cu > Ni > Cd > Se > As > Co > Cr > Pb > Hg. The highest total metals level was found in spinach, with the following decreasing order: spinach > tomato > sugar beet > white eggplant > cucumber ~ kale > green chili > green bean > dill ~ potato > capsicum > onion > corn. Spinach exhibited the highest concentrations of Cd, Cr, Pb, and Hg, which suggests a higher risk of metal exposure from its consumption. Toxic metals except Cd were found to be lower than the maximum allowable concentrations set by international agencies among the analyzed vegetables, while Cd levels were higher than maximum allowable levels in most of the vegetables. Health risks associated with metal intake by vegetable consumption were evaluated in terms of estimated daily intake (EDI), non-carcinogenic risks were evaluated by the target hazard quotient (THQ) and Hazard Index (HI), and carcinogenic risks were evaluated by target cancer risk (TCR). The EDI values of all the metals were found to be below the maximum tolerable daily intake (MTDI). The highest EDI value for Mn, Zn, Hg, Cr, Cd, and Pb was noted in spinach. THQ values for Cd, Co, and As were higher than 1 in most of the vegetable species analyzed, indicating non-carcinogenic health effects to consumers. HI results also posed a non-carcinogenic health risk associated with the intake of these vegetables. Mean TCR values of Cr, Ni, As, and Cd indicated carcinogenic risk for consumers. This study showed that there are potential health risks with consumption of these vegetables. Lastly, regular monitoring of metal levels in vegetables is suggested/recommended to minimize health risks and support pollution control efforts.

Heavy Metal Assessment of Claris angullaris and Tilapia zilli from Omambala River, Anambra State, Nigeria

Fish is a major source of food in many parts of the world, because they contribute to solving global food problem and providing adequate proportions of proteins, minerals, vitamins and trace elements. Concentrations of iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) were determined in organs of fish species (Tilapia zilli and Claris angullaris) caught from Omambala River, Anambra State, Nigeria. The fishes were caught overnight with the aid of nets cast by the local fishermen. Fish tissues/organs (muscles, liver, kidneys and gills) were digested and the concentrations of the heavy metals determined using the Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS 220FS). Heavy metals and physicochemical parameters of the water samples were also analyzed, using same AAS. Health risks related to Fe, Ni, Zn, Pb and Cd were assessed based on target hazard quotient (THQ). Results showed varying degrees of heavy metal concentrations across organs/tissues in the fish samples. There were higher concentrations of heavy metals in the gills than in other organs of the fish samples. The concentration of Pb was highest concentration in all the organs of the fish samples. The trend of bioaccumulation of the heavy metals in fish organs is presented in descending order of the most prevalence as; Pb (0.660±0.244) > Fe > (0.454±0.544) > Zn (0.345±0.108) > Cd (0.029±0.008). The concentration of Fe was at maximum in the kidneys of the two fish species. Highest accumulation of Zn and Pb were detected in gills of T. zilli and C. angullaris. Overall, the analyzed heavy metals were all detected in the organs of the two fish species except Pb and Cd which were not detected in the kidney and muscle of C. angullaris respectively. Heavy metals and physicochemical analyses of the water samples revealed most parameters and metals were within the World Health Organization (WHO) and Nigerian’s National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA) maximum permissible limits. The THQ values for Pb in the muscles of Tilapia zilli were greater than 1, indicating high health risks related to heavy metals from the fish consumption. THQ values of other heavy metals in the muscle of C. angullaris and T. zilli were less than 1, indicating no risk from the fish consumption. The heavy metal concentrations and physicochemical parameters of the water were within the WHO and NASREA standard limits.

Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in Water, Soils, and Fish Tissues from Barandu River, Buner, Pakistan: Implications for Food Safety and Human Health Risk.

Nowadays, rivers are subjected to hazardous metal pollution because of human activities which badly affect aquatic ecosystems and human health. This study investigates the bioaccumulation and potential health risks of heavy metal contaminants (Cu, Fe, Zn, Pb, Ni, Mn, Cd, Cr, and Co) in the water, soil, and tissues of Schizothorax plagiostomus from the Barandu River, with the aim of evaluating their safety for human consumption. The samples (fish, water and soil) were obtained from three different sites i.e., upstream (US), industrial (IS), and downstream (DS) and analyzed using atomic absorption spectrometer. Our analysis displayed significant Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in body tissues (Liver > Gills > Muscles) with levels exceeding the permissible limits established by the WHO, with except for Fe, Cu, Zn, Ni, and Cd. Furthermore, this study found elevated levels of Cu, Fe, Pb, Ni, Mn, Cd, Cr, and Co in water samples, while only Cd exceeded the standards in sediment, according to guidelines of WHO and the USEPA. Metal levels were significantly elevated (P < 0.05) at IS relative to the other two sites, and frequently, levels at DS were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those at US. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of most targeted metals in S. plagiostomus tissues from US and DS sites was found to be within the permissible maximum tolerable daily intake (MTDI), indicating no significant health risks for the local population. However, at the IS, the EDI values for Mn, Cr, and Co surpass the MTDI, highlighting potential health risks correlated with the consumption of fish from this area. The Target hazard quotient (THQ) and Hazard index (HI) values for all the metals in fish organs were < 1 indicating that indirect intake of metals by consuming fish will not result in potential health hazard in humans. However, in the three Sites, Ni, Cd, and Cr exhibited a carcinogenic risk surpassing the permissible limit (< 1 × 10 - 4), signifying high cancer risk linked with S. plagiostomus consumption. Additionally, the PCA analysis indicates a positive correlation between the level of heavy metals in fish organs and water. The results obtained indicated that the discharge of industrial effluents led to a higher accumulation of heavy metals in fish tissues at IS when compared to US and DS. It is essential that all these industries either relocate from the bank of the River Barandu or ensure proper treatment of their effluents before discharging them into the river, to safeguard the biota of River Barandu from contamination resulting from these marble industries.

Trace metal accumulation in oceanic tuna species and its implication on human health.

The present study investigates the concentrations of 14 trace and heavy metals (Ag, Al, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, Hg, As, and Se) in two oceanic tuna species (Thunnus albacares and Katsuwonus pelamis) collected from the Tharuvaikulam fish landing centre along the Tuticorin coast, Southeast India, to evaluate potential health risks associated with their consumption. The analysis focused on the muscle, liver, gill, and skin tissues which were investigated using ICP-MS to assess the potential health risks associated with their metal accumulation. The concentration patterns of trace metals in the organs of T. albacares were found to be Se > Al > Fe > Zn > Cr > Cu > Mn > Ni > Pb > As > Hg > Cd > Co in muscle, skin, gill, and liver. In K. pelamis, a similar pattern was observed in skin, gill, and liver in the order of Se > Al > Zn > Fe > Cr > Cu > Mn > Ni > Pb > As > Hg > Cd > Co. Selenium (Se) had the highest Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) value in both Thunnus albacares (0.325mg/kg bw/day) and Katsuwonus pelamis (0.036mg/kg bw/day), both of which exceeded the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI) set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) values for all toxic metals in tuna from the Tharuvaikulam region were below 1 for both children and adults, indicating no significant health risks and aligning with previous findings on tuna fish species. Nevertheless, ongoing monitoring of trace metal levels in seafood from this region is recommended to ensure continued consumer safety.

Variations in seafood consumption and health risk associated with trace element exposure in the Zhoushan Fishing Ground, China: A questionnaire-based study.

Variations in seafood consumption and health risk associated with trace element exposure in the Zhoushan Fishing Ground, China: A questionnaire-based study.

Trace elements in freshwater killifish, Aphanius stoliczkanus, from Oman: A food safety issue.

Trace elements in freshwater killifish, Aphanius stoliczkanus, from Oman: A food safety issue.

Safety, quality attributes, and health risk assessments of sand smelt fish

This study investigated the nutritional values, microbiological quality, heavy metal content, and their health risk assessment in sand-smelt fish (Atherina boyeri) in Egyptian markets. Fifty samples of sand-smelt fish were obtained from fish markets in Cairo and Giza Governorates. Fish samples were exposed to chemical analysis (protein, fat, moisture, and ash content), deterioration criteria [pH, Total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N), Trimethylamine (TMA), Thiobarbituric acid (TBA), Free Fatty Acids (FFA), Acid Number content (AN)], microbial testing (aerobic bacterial count (APC), psychrotrophic, Enterobacteriaceae, total coliforms, faecal coliforms, pseudomonas, and Aeromonas species), determination of heavy metals and their health risk assessment parameters. The study revealed that sand-smelt fish meat is rich in protein (18.53%), and contains a low-fat content (1.70%). Also, it contains reasonable levels of moisture (78.10%) and ash (1.61%). Furthermore, the study found low levels of the total bacterial count, psychrotrophic, Enterobacteriaceae, total coliforms, faecal coliforms, pseudomonas, and Aeromonas species (5.33, 4.56, 3.88, 4.50, 3.75, 2.73, 2.63 log10 CFU/g, respectively), indicating good microbiological quality. Moreover, fish muscles had good shelf life indicators and they met the Egyptian standard specifications in terms of pH, TBVN, TMA, TBA, FFA, and AN (6.27, 15.96 mg/100 g, 8.61 mg/100 g, 0.34 mg MDA/kg, 0.68% as Oleic acid, 1.31 mg NaOH/g, respectively). Regarding heavy metal content (µg/g) in fish meat, lead (1.27), arsenic (0.70), and cadmium (0.27) were detected, their levels were generally low. Mercury levels were below the detectable limits. Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) and Hazard Index (HI) values were below 1, suggesting a low risk of non-carcinogenic effects. Carcinogenic risks were also considered low. Interestingly, sand smelt fish meat can be widely incorporated safely in Egyptian markets due to its high nutritional value, safety, and quality indicators, besides its affordable price. However, continuous monitoring of heavy metal levels is recommended to ensure long-term food safety.

Occurrence and risk assessment of hydroxymethylfurfural in Iranian traditional breads using green chemistry

This study investigated the formation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) in types of traditional Iranian bread. The objective was to identify the most effective extraction method for measuring 5-HMF, using green extraction techniques coupled with HPLC. The highest and lowest mean concentration of 5-HMF was detected in Sangak and Taftoon samples as 74.32 and 15.46 mg/kg, respectively. The chronic daily intake exposure to 5-HMF in traditional breads with non-carcinogenic effects in children, adolescents, and adults who consumed Sangak bread, was higher than others. Target hazard quotient values for all age groups were below 1, indicating low immediate non-carcinogenic risk. Uncertainty analysis of exposure indicated that all age groups consuming breads (especially Sangak) can be exposed to carcinogenic risks. Overall, while the risk of cancer from bread consumption is serious for adults (Sangak) and children (Barbari and Sangak), the study emphasizes the caution regarding Sangak consumption in all age groups.

Preliminary Assessment of Essential and Potentially Toxic Elements in the Most Common Spices in a Developing Country: Health Hazard Implication.

In the current study, total concentrations of essential and potentially toxic elements (Ba, Ca, K, P, Na, Mg, Cr, Ni, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, As, Cd, and Pb) in the most common nine spices (Nigella sativa, Capsicum annum, Piper guineense, Capsicum carvi, Elettaria cardamomum, Zingiber officinale, Piper nigrum, Cinnamomum verum, and Curcuma longa) of fields and markets of Bogra district (Bangladesh) were determined using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry following acid digestion. The findings of the study indicate a good source of essential elements like Ca, K, Na, P, Mg Fe, Zn, and Mn in spices. The average concentrations of K, P, Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Ba, Cu, Mn, Zn, Ni, Cr, As, Pb, and Cd in spices were 697, 190, 168, 112, 97.2, 7.35, 6.29, 4.36, 4.21, 3.91, 2.99, 0.81, 0.17, 0.08, and 0.03mg/kg, respectively. The concentrations of Cr, Cu, and Pb were higher than the recommended level (0.5, 4.5, and 0.1 for Cr, Cu and Pb), which indicates that people would experience potential risks from spices. The daily intake values of all the metals were lower than the maximum tolerable daily intake (MTDI). Considering child exposure group, total target hazard quotient (THQ) values for all studied elements from a single spice or all examined spices exceeded the threshold value (THQ > 1.0), indicating that the children posed a potential non-cancer risk to the potentially toxic elements. Consumption of Piper guineense, Nigella sativa, Cinnamomum verum, and Curcuma longa may pose carcinogenic health risk due to an incremental lifetime cancer risk (ƩTR) value higher than 10-4.

Occurrence of trace elements in water, fish and shellfish from estuarine and coastal areas of the east coast of Bangladesh, northeast Bay of Bengal: Human health risk implications.

Occurrence of trace elements in water, fish and shellfish from estuarine and coastal areas of the east coast of Bangladesh, northeast Bay of Bengal: Human health risk implications.

Assessment of micro-macro elements and fatty acid profiles in Turkish salmon fillets during traditional hot smoking: Implications for human health risks

Turkish salmon, a variant of rainbow trout farmed in Black Sea cages, is a key species in Türkiye’s aquaculture. This study examines the effects of hot smoking on Turkish salmon’s fatty acids, elemental content, and safety indi-cators. Twelve large rainbow trout samples were randomly collected from an international hypermarket in Adana, Türkiye, in February 2024 for analysis post-hot smoking. Hot smoking increased total saturated fatty acids (SFA), particularly C16:0 and C18:0, as well as Zn, K, and Fe (p &lt; 0.05), while significantly decreasing C20:2 (n-6) among polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (p &lt; 0.05). Provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) assessments indicated that the estimated weekly intake (EWI) for Cu, Fe, and Zn remained below the PTWI, suggesting no immediate health risks. Total target hazard quotient (∑THQ) values for heavy metals were below 1, indicating no significant risk to adults or children, despite a post-smoking increase. Low levels of As, Pb, Cr, Ni, and Cd (below detection limits) prevented reliable target carcinogenic risk (TR) assessment, highlighting limitations in evaluating trace elements.

Health risk assessment of heavy metals in basil (&lt;i&gt;Ocimum basilicum &lt;/i&gt;L.) grown in artificially contaminated substrates

This study aimed to determine the levels of Cd, Cr and Pb in basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) cultivated on artificially contaminated substrates and to assess their potential harmful effects on human health via the calculation of the target hazard quotients (THQ). A pot experiment was performed in a completely randomized design for each tested heavy metal. It included four contamination treatments (0, 20, 50 and 100 mg kg-1 for Cd, and 0, 100, 250 and 500 mg kg-1 for Cr and Pb). Concentrations of Cd, Cr and Pb in plants samples were determined by atomic absorbtion spectroscopy. The results of this study showed that the concentrations of Cd, Cr and Pb were several times higher in roots than in the aboveground parts of basil plants regardless of contamination levels. These are desirable results because only aboveground parts of basil are used for medicinal purposes or consumption. The THQ values for Cd, Cr and Pb observed in this study were lower than 1 regardless of contamination levels, indicating that the consumption of basil from the study site (up to 10 g per day) does not pose a risk to human health from the point of view of heavy metal investigated.

Health Risk Assessment by Determining Heavy Metals (As and Fe) in Tube Wells Water of Tangail Municipality, Bangladesh

Tangail Municipality is a rapidly urbanizing area in Bangladesh that faces challenges in maintaining safe drinking water due to natural and anthropogenic contamination. The presence of heavy metals, particularly arsenic (As) and iron (Fe), in groundwater poses potential health risks to residents. The study was conducted to assess the water quality of tube wells water of Tangail Municipality in February 2023. A total of 18 water samples from 6 wards were collected from Tangail Municipality. The concentrations of pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Arsenic (As), and Iron (Fe) ranged from 6.32±0.01 to 7.48±0.01; 185±1 μS/cm-1 to 1305±1 μS/cm-1; 0.0021 to 0.0068 mg/l and 0.658 to 2.194 mg/l, respectively. The study found that the water samples' pH, EC, and As values were suitable for drinking, domestic activities, irrigation, farming, and other purposes according to Environmental Conservation Rules (ECR) and World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. However, all the Iron values of water samples exceeded the standard value of WHO and ECR. The Target Hazard Quotient of Arsenic in all water samples was less than 1. Nevertheless, the Target Hazard Quotient values of Iron in each sample exceeded the limiting value except for sample 17. The highest Target Hazard Quotient value of Fe is found at 9.37 in sample 15 at Ward 5. The reasons for Fe prevalence might be natural, i.e., weathering and erosion of bedrock, ore deposits, or anthropogenic, such as excessive groundwater use. The highest Carcinogenic Risk of Arsenic was found to be 0.001119 in sample 12 at Ward 4, and the lowest value was 0.000018 in sample 17 at Ward 6. The findings underscore the urgent need for regular monitoring and alternative water sources to ensure safe drinking water in Tangail Municipality.

Organochlorine Pesticide Residues and Associated Health Risks in Nigerian Rice Samples: Implications for Food Safety and Environmental Policy.

This study assessed OCP residues in rice grains and soils from various rice-producing regions in Nigeria, aiming to estimate human exposure and associated health risks from rice consumption. Samples were collected from Hadejia (Jigawa), Makwaro (Kano), Pategi (Kwara), Igbemo (Ekiti), Isoku (Ogun), and Akeke (Edo) using a stratified random sampling technique. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis revealed α-Lindane, β-Lindane, γ-Lindane, and δ-Lindane were only present in rice from Ogun, while Endosulfan II was detected across all locations, with concentrations ranging from 1.819 mg/kg in Igbemo rice to 20.706 mg/kg in Costus rice from Kano. Other OCPs, such as Aldrin and Dieldrin, also varied significantly across regions, with Aldrin levels peaking at 0.224 mg/kg in Ogun. The analysis highlighted substantial non-carcinogenic risks associated with OCP exposure, particularly in Ogun and Kano, with Heptachlor presenting the highest Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) values. The Lifetime Cancer Risk (LCR) analysis showed Ogun with the highest cumulative risk at 0.016107, indicating a critical public health concern. Overall, the findings underscore the urgent need for monitoring and regulatory measures to mitigate OCP exposure risks in rice consumption, particularly in regions where LCR and THQ values exceed safety thresholds.

Mercury levels in freshwater aquatic products across China: Spatial distribution, species differences, and health risk assessment.

Mercury levels in freshwater aquatic products across China: Spatial distribution, species differences, and health risk assessment.

CONTAMINATION IN PADDY SOILS AND RICE GRAINS FROM KELANTAN: ASSESSING RISKS TO FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH

This study assesses lead (Pb) contamination in paddy soils and rice grains from two rice-growing regions in Kelantan, Malaysia: Kemuning and Kelaweh. By evaluating estimated daily intake (EDI) and target hazard quotient (THQ) values for Pb in adults and children, the study aims to quantify the health risks associated with rice consumption in these regions. The highest Pb concentrations were observed in the "Outlet" zones of Kelaweh, where the THQ for Pb in adults reached 69.3 and for children reached 37.9, indicating significant potential health risks. In contrast, Kemuning exhibited lower Pb contamination, though the "Outlet" zone still presented moderate risks, with THQ values of 11.4 for adults and 8.11 for children. The study underscores the need for immediate intervention through environmental management and sustainable agricultural practices to reduce Pb contamination, ensuring rice consumption's safety and protecting the region's public health. The findings of this study are intended to inform future public health interventions and agricultural practices to mitigate Pb contamination, ensuring that rice production remains safe and sustainable in the long term.

Evaluation of Potentially Toxic Metal Bioaccumulation in Farmed Mussels: Assessing the Non-Contributory Role of Attachment Ropes in Metal Enrichment.

Potentially toxic metal contamination in marine environments poses significant risks to both ecosystems and human health. Mussels, as filter feeders, are particularly susceptible to accumulating these contaminants, making their safety a critical concern. This study aims to investigate the correlation between potentially toxic metal concentrations in attachment ropes and mussel soft tissues in an aquaculture setting. We analyzed the levels of Hg, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Pb, and Cr in both substrates and assessed the health risks using the Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) method. Results show that while most potentially toxic metals (Hg, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr) in mussels present low health risks with THQ values below 1, As and Cd pose significant risks, with As showing a THQ value significantly above 1. No significant correlations were found between the potentially toxic metal concentrations in ropes and mussel tissues, indicating other environmental factors influence metal bioaccumulation in mussels. These findings underscore the necessity for comprehensive monitoring and targeted mitigation strategies to reduce potentially toxic metal contamination in aquaculture environments, ensuring the safety and sustainability of mussel production.