Tail Swishing Research Articles

Oral behaviour during riding is associated with oral lesions in dressage horses – A field study

The welfare of sports horses is debated both within and outside the horse community. One welfare concern is the frequent occurrence of oral lesions. Lesions may be caused by inappropriate training and ill-fitting equipment. Increased knowledge of behavioural signs of pain, discomfort and frustration (often jointly labelled ‘conflict behaviour’) in horses can increase awareness by riders, trainers, officials, and competition judges, which is a first step towards reducing the occurrence. This study included 11 warmblood dressage horses competing at upper national level (Intermediaire I). The horses were randomly selected (from a total of 22 horses) for an unannounced inspection for oral lesions immediately after leaving the dressage arena. Five of the 11 horses had abrasion of the skin and/or mucosa at one or both commissures of the lips and were eliminated from the competition according to the rules of the national equestrian federation. An experienced observer who was blind regarding the outcome of the inspection, scored behaviour in the 11 horses from official video recordings available online from the event. The frequency of mouth opening ranged from 5 to 59 times in the 11 horses. Horses with oral lesions had a significantly higher frequency of mouth opening compared to horses without oral lesions (t-test, mean ±SEM; lesions: 34.6 ±6.7 vs. no lesions: 12.2 ±2.4, t(9) = 3.4, P = 0.008). The frequency of other conflict behaviours did not differ significantly between the groups (e.g. tail swishing: MWU-test, median [25;75 %]; lesions: 25 [14;27] vs. no lesions: 10 [6,24], U = 7.0, P = 0.18). It is concluded that oral behaviour may be a useful indicator of oral lesions. Further studies are needed to investigate behavioural signs of discomfort and pain in riding horses, as behaviour can be an early predictor of compromised welfare. Increased awareness of subtle behavioural signs is therefore an important first step towards improved sports horse welfare.

Comparison of head–neck positions and conflict behaviour in ridden elite dressage horses between warm-up and competition

The use of specific head–neck positions (HNPs) in horse riding have been identified to directly affect wellbeing of horses. In the rulebook of the International Equestrian federation (FEI), HNPs with the nasal plane in front of the vertical are mandatory, as well as ensuring horses to be “happy athletes”. Deviations from this should be reflected in the scoring of dressage competitions. We investigated ridden elite dressage horses in warm-up areas and during competition, and hypothesised a relationship between the HNP, behavioural indicators and the scores. Forty-nine starters (83%) of an international dressage competition (Grand Prix Special (CDIO5*) at CHIO (Aachen (Germany) in 2018 and 2019) were examined. We analysed HNPs (angle at vertical, poll angle and shoulder angle) as well as conflict behaviour (CB), e.g. unusual oral behaviour (OB) and tail swishing (TS), in the warm-up area and during competition in 3 min-videos (6571 frames). Conflict behaviour was evaluated using the Observer XT with the focus animal method according to an ethogram. Scores given by judges in the competition were noted. Data were analysed with six linear mixed effects models, where phase of competition and year (both factors with two levels) were fixed effects, and the horse was a random effect. Dependent variables were poll angle, angle at vertical, shoulder angle, TS, OB and total CB. Further, we evaluated another three models to evaluate if the vertical angle affected the response variables (TS, OB or CB). Hereby, angle at the vertical (continuous) and year (factor with two levels) were fixed effects, and the horse was considered as a random effect. The horses’ nasal plane was behind the vertical more often during warm-up than during competition (−11° vs. −5°; P<.01). Further, the poll angle was larger during competition than during warm-up (28° vs. 24°; P<.01). Horses showed more total CB and OB during warm-up than during competition (count: 163 and 107 vs. 120 and 78; P<.01). Horses tended to show more CB and OB when their nasal plane was behind the vertical. Tail swishing was not affected by angle at the vertical. Scores given by the judges correlated with HNPs during competition (R = 0.38; P<.05). These results undermine animal welfare concerns during world class dressage competitions.

Reported Agonistic Behaviours in Domestic Horses Cluster According to Context.

Agonistic behaviours are often directed at other animals for self-defence or to increase distance from valued resources, such as food. Examples include aggression and counter-predator behaviours. Contemporary diets may boost the value of food as a resource and create unanticipated associations with the humans who deliver it. At the same time the domestic horse is asked to carry the weight of riders and perform manoeuvres that, ethologically, are out-of-context and may be associated with instances of pain, confusion, or fear. Agonistic responses can endanger personnel and conspecifics. They are traditionally grouped along with so-called vices as being undesirable and worthy of punishment; a response that can often make horses more dangerous. The current study used data from the validated online Equine Behavioural and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) to explore the agonistic behaviours (as reported by the owners) of 2734 horses. With a focus on ridden horses, the behaviours of interest in the current study ranged from biting and bite threats and kicking and kick threats to tail swishing as an accompaniment to signs of escalating irritation when horses are approached, prepared for ridden work, ridden, and hosed down (e.g., after work). Analysis of the responses according to the context in which they arise included a dendrographic analysis that identified five clusters of agonistic behaviours among certain groups of horses and a principal component analysis that revealed six components, strongly related to the five clusters. Taken together, these results highlight the prospect that the motivation to show these responses differs with context. The clusters with common characteristics were those observed in the context of: locomotion under saddle; saddling; reactions in a familiar environment, inter-specific threats, and intra-specific threats. These findings highlight the potential roles of fear and pain in such unwelcome responses and challenge the simplistic view that the problems lie with the nature of the horses themselves rather than historic or current management practices. Improved understanding of agonistic responses in horses will reduce the inclination of owners to label horses that show such context-specific responses as being generally aggressive.

Conflict behaviour in Icelandic horses during elite competition

Sport horse welfare is currently under scrutiny. Among other issues, it has been pointed out that behavioural signs of discomfort are frequently overlooked during training and competitions. Previous studies reported a relatively high prevalence of these types of behaviour (e.g., tail swishing, mouth opening – typically jointly labelled ‘conflict behaviour’) in elite level dressage and show jumping warmblood horses. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of conflict behaviour in Icelandic horses competing at elite level in breed-specific gait competitions. We used online video recordings from a competition in Iceland, including two different competitions (MD22, Fivegait F1: n = 25, and Loose-rein Tölt T2: n = 24 participating horses). The recordings were viewed at slow speed (x 0.25) enabling a detailed recording of the horses’ behavioural expressions. Mouth opening was the most frequently observed behaviour and occurred more in pace and tölt (Fivegait F1, P<0.001). In T2, mouth opening was more frequent in short-rein tölt than during loose-rein tölt (P<0.001). Sudden head movements, tail swishing and undesired gait changes also occurred, but less frequently. An elongated upper lip was observed in 12 of the 24 participating horses in T2, but only in short-rein tölt, suggesting that upper lip elongation is related to rein tension. We conclude that mouth movements (mouth opening and an elongated upper lip) are common behavioural expressions in Icelandic horses competing at elite level. Further studies are required to reveal the significance of these behaviours in terms of horse welfare.

The Defensive Behaviors and Milk Production of Pastured Dairy Cattle in Response to Stable Flies, Horn Flies, and Face Flies.

Thirty-four crossbred dairy cows were observed on pasture six times per week from June to August 2014 at the University of Minnesota West Central Research and Outreach Center grazing dairy in Morris, MN, for defensive behaviors in response to three species of muscid flies. Counts of stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans (L.)), horn flies (Haematobia irritans (L.)), and face flies (Musca autumnalis DeGeer) were recorded before and after pasture observation. Individual cows were monitored for 5 min intervals to observe the frequencies of five different defensive behaviors: front and back leg stomps, head tosses, skin twitches, and tail swishes. Fly numbers averaged 5 stable flies per leg, 37 horn flies per side, and 1 face fly per face during the study. The fly counts and behavior frequencies increased with ambient temperature. The results showed a very strong relationship between the numbers of flies and numbers of defensive behaviors, though correlations between specific flies and behaviors were low. Younger cows had fewer stable flies and horn flies than older cows. The thresholds of flies to lower production for pastured organic dairy cows may be greater than 5 for stable flies, 37 for horn flies, and 1 for face flies.

“Dropping” in male horses during training: Part 2. Video observations

Dropping (penile tumescence) in male horses has been related to the provision of food rewards but it is unclear why horses display this behaviour. The objective of this observational study was to characterize dropping in relation to other behavioural indicators. Trainers submitted videos of their training session with their horse (n = 24). Frequency of behaviours (oral, head position, tail swish), rewards (treats) and duration of penile characteristics (partial or full drop, flaccid or erect) were noted for multiple 2 min segments of the training session. Chi-squared analyses compared penile characteristics to rewards. A mixed model analyzed the effects of horse age and training segment on behaviours and penile characteristics. Dropping occurred 69 % of the time with either a flaccid or erect penis. In the first 2 min horses spent less time with a fully dropped and erect penis than later in the training session (p < .02). Horses 11–15 yrs were fully dropped (82 % of the time) and erect (65 % of the time) longer than older and younger horses (p < .0001). Horses spent less time fully dropped (15 %) when trainers did not use treats compared to when they did (42 %; p < .03). The number of dropping bouts did not differ regardless of whether treats were provided or not (p = .3672). Neither the use of touch (p = .6861) nor the use of the clicker (p = .3795) were related to dropping during training sessions. The horses exhibited shorter durations of being fully dropped (p = .0016) and fully erect (p = .0253) during afternoon training sessions compared to morning and evening training sessions. No stress-related behaviours (head positioning, tail swishing, lip licking) were related to dropping (p > .05) however lip licking did occur more frequently during the last two minutes of the session (p = .0003). From these observations it can be suggested that dropping is not a sign of stress but may relate to the affective state of the horse.

Insect-repelling behaviour in horses in relation to insect prevalence and access to shelters

Pasture access is key to horse welfare, but during summer biting insects can cause discomfort and lead to health issues related to transmission of diseases and allergies. To measure the level of discomfort and whether access to shelters or other indoor areas may help prevent biting insect nuisance, we studied 39 horses: n = 21 with free indoor access (five groups) and n = 18 without indoor access (four groups) and recorded horse position (e.g., inside or outside), insect-repelling behaviour (e.g., tail swishing and head tossing), faeces cortisol metabolites, weather conditions, and insect prevalence through trap catches (e.g., tabanids which are known to attack horses). Data were collected one day per week per group for eight weeks during midsummer. Tail swishing (mean occurrence: 29.4 ± 1.1 per min) and skin shivering (mean occurrence: 13.8 ± 0.6 per min) were the most frequently recorded behaviours. The total frequency of insect-repelling behaviour was affected by treatment (indoor access vs. no access) and tabanid trap catches in interaction (F1281 = 8.08, P = 0.005), as more repelling behaviour was shown by horses without indoor access with increasing tabanid prevalence. Horses with indoor access were inside on 69% of recordings on days with a high tabanid prevalence vs. 14% on days with low tabanid prevalence. Concentrations of faeces cortisol metabolites did not differ between days with low vs. high tabanid prevalence. The following year, we conducted a small follow-up study on 13 horses (6 with free indoor access and 7 without) and recorded behaviour and saliva cortisol on four selected summer days with either low or high insect prevalence (2 ‘low’ and 2 ‘high’ days). On ‘high’ insect days, saliva cortisol increased significantly in horses without indoor access, suggesting that biting insect nuisance is reflected in saliva cortisol concentrations. We conclude that free access to shelters or other indoor areas during summer reduce nuisance by biting insects and thereby can improve horse welfare.

Preliminary findings in the rolling behavior of Mules (Equus caballus x Equus asinus)

In order to investigate and create an ethogram of the rolling behavior of mules (Equus caballus × Equus asinus) in comparison to that of horses (Equus caballus), we observed a domestic free-range, mixed group of 17 horses and 11 mules for two consecutive days (12 h/day), filming all the rolling events. From these footages, we were able to register the occurrence of specific behaviors that characterize the rolling: sniffing the ground prior to lie down; tail swishing; resting in recumbence; scratching and shaking. Moreover, we also observed two social dimensions that are possibly involved with the rolling behavior: 1) Social facilitation - once an animal started to roll, others in the group copied its behavior and 2) Demarcation - animals tended to return to roll in the same dust patches. In this equine group, mules rolled more frequently than horses and also exhibited more of the specific behaviors tail swishing, resting and scratching. Moreover, in the rolling events exhibited by the mules, the social facilitation and demarcation occurred more than in the horses. As a preliminary study, we pointed some important differences between the rolling behavior of horses and mules. Considering the lack of knowledge in this regards such findings could be useful to spread ideas for future studies concerning the mules behavior and to improve the welfare conditions of these animals.

Application of the Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram to Horses Competing at the Hickstead-Rotterdam Grand Prix Challenge and the British Dressage Grand Prix National Championship 2020 and Comparison with World Cup Grand Prix Competitions.

Simple SummaryThe Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) comprises 24 behaviours, the majority of which are at least 10 times more likely to be seen in a horse with musculoskeletal discomfort than a non-lame horse. A RHpE score of eight or more indicates the presence of musculoskeletal pain. The most frequent RHpE score for 147 competitors at World Cup Grand Prix events from 2018 to 2020 was 3/24 (range 0–7), indicating that the majority of horses were working comfortably. The aim of the current study was to apply the RHpE to 38 competitors at the Hickstead-Rotterdam Grand Prix Challenge and 26 competitors at the British Dressage Grand Prix National Championship in 2020. The most frequent RHpE scores were 4 (range 0–8) and 6 (range 1–9), respectively. These scores were significantly higher than the World Cup competitors. This was associated with a higher prevalence of lameness and gait abnormalities in canter and more frequent errors in passage and piaffe, canter flying changes, canter pirouettes and rein back in the non-elite horses compared with the World Cup competitors. There was a negative correlation between the RHpE scores and the judges’ scores. Appropriate investigation and targeted management of horses with musculoskeletal discomfort may enhance both their performance and welfare.The Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) comprising 24 behaviours was developed to facilitate the identification of musculoskeletal discomfort, with scores of ≥8/24 indicating the presence of pain. The median RHpE score for 147 competitors at World Cup Grand Prix events from 2018 to 2020 was three (interquartile range [IQR] 1–4; range 0–7). The aim of the current study was to apply the RHpE to 38 competitors at the Hickstead-Rotterdam Grand Prix Challenge and 26 competitors at the British Dressage Grand Prix National Championship in 2020. The median RHpE scores were four (IQR 3–6; range 0–8) and six (IQR 4–7; range 1–9), respectively, which were both higher (p = 0.0011 and p = 0.0000) than the World Cup competitors’ scores. Ears back ≥ 5 s (p = 0.005), intense stare ≥ 5 s (p = 0.000), repeated tail swishing (p = 0.000), hindlimb toe drag (p = 0.000), repeated tongue-out (p = 0.003) and crooked tail-carriage (p = 0.000) occurred more frequently. These were associated with a higher frequency of lameness, abnormalities of canter, and errors in rein-back, passage and piaffe, canter flying-changes and canter pirouettes compared with World Cup competitors. There was a moderate negative correlation between the dressage judges’ scores and the RHpE scores (Spearman’s rho −0.66, p = 0.0002) at the British Championship. Performance and welfare may be improved by recognition and appropriate treatment of underlying problems.

Horses’ physiological and behavioural responses during undergraduate veterinary practical teaching classes

Horses are used in many equine and veterinary science degree programmes during practical teaching classes for students to develop and refine their handling and clinical skills. There are few studies investigating the stress responses of these horses within the teaching environment. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physiological and behavioural responses of teaching horses during three types of practical teaching classes: equine handling (EH), medical rectal examination (MR) and mare reproductive rectal examination (RR). The study population included 20 teaching horses from three herds (mean time in herd of 7 ± 3 years). The horses’ heart rate (HR) was assessed before (horses in holding yard and entering the stocks/teaching yard), during (horses in stocks/teaching yard, with or without interaction with students or lecturer) and after (horses in holding yard and leaving the stocks/teaching yard) a practical class. In addition, behaviour (pawing, eating hay, vocalisation, head surveying, tail swishing, repetitive head movement, shifting weight backwards and ears orientation) of the horses used during rectal examination classes was recorded. Median class duration was 99.50 min (IQR: 95.75−112.25 min) for EH, 37.50 min (IQR: 32.25−40 min) for MR, and 47 min (IQR: 47−48 min) for RR classes. Horses interacted with students for 26 % (RR) to 40 % (EH and MR) of the classes’ duration. There was no change in median HR (35 bpm, interquartile range [IQR]: 33–39 bpm) between activities during EH classes. Median HR was greater when horses entered the stocks compared to the holding yard before the class in MR (entering stocks: 52.5 bpm, IQR: 43–58 bpm; yard-before: 39 bpm, IQR: 36–40 bpm; p = 0.047) and RR (entering stocks: 46 bpm, IQR = 41–49 bpm; yard-before: 37 bpm, IQR: 33−41 bpm; p = 0.031) classes. For both rectal examination classes, horses spent most of their time eating hay (MR: 94 %, IQR: 73–100 %; RR: 61 %, IQR: 46–79 %). In RR classes, horses spent less time eating hay (36 %) and had their ears pointed backwards more frequently (1.39 occurrences/min) during an interaction with a student compared to no interaction. Limited physiological and behavioural stress responses were observed in response to the three types of practical classes, suggesting this population of teaching horses may be habituated to both their use and environment for teaching.

Influence of workload and weather conditions on rolling behaviour of horses and mules

We evaluated the influences of workload intensity, bath handling and environmental conditions in the rolling behaviour of horses and mules. For this purpose, animals were observed after being exposed to different levels of workload and the rolling behaviour was recorded and described. During all testing procedures, the weather condition (temperature and humidity) was registered by a Black globe and Wet Bulb apparatus. Horses frequently rolled after intense exercise and after bath handling, independently of the weather condition. Mules frequently rolled after control (no exercise) and intense exercise in warmer and wetter days and after bath handlings in colder and drier days. Rolling behaviour characteristics were slightly different between species. While mules exhibited more frequently the behaviours of rest, self-care, yawn, tail swishing, complete spins, snort vocalization and use of the same spot to roll, horses exhibited more frequently the behaviours of paw, sniff, head and neck rubbing movements and incomplete spins to the right and left. This findings evidence that rolling is an important and frequently exhibited behaviour by domestic horses and mules, but animals may express it differently and may have their own motivations. In this sense, we believe that domestic equines, mainly those raised in more intensive livestock, should have the opportunities to freely express the rolling, as a way to improve their welfare conditions and with agreement with a more rational handling practice.

Application of the Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram to Elite Dressage Horses Competing in World Cup Grand Prix Competitions.

Simple SummaryA Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) was developed comprising 24 behaviours; a score of ≥8/24 is likely to reflect the presence of musculoskeletal pain. The aim of the study was to apply the RHpE to elite dressage horses, competing at World Cup Grand Prix qualifying competitions or finals. It was hypothesised that this should be a group of horses with a low incidence of musculoskeletal pain; thus, RHpE scores would be consistently <8. Additional aims were to compare RHpE scores with judges’ scores and to compare these and other observations concerning gait with the guidelines for judging Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) dressage. The RHpE was applied by a trained assessor to video recordings of 147 competitors at nine venues. Freehand notes described additional observations. The median RHpE score for all competitors was 3/24 (range 0, 7). There was a moderate negative correlation between the RHpE score and the judges’ score. There was a high frequency of occurrence of head behind vertical ≥10° ≥10 s, mouth open with separation of the teeth ≥10 s and repeated tail swishing, behaviours that should be penalised according to FEI rules. It was nonetheless concluded that most horses appeared to work comfortably for the majority of the test.There is considerable debate about the social license to compete with horses and controversy about training methods for dressage horses. The objectives were to: 1. apply the Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) to dressage horses competing at elite Grand Prix level; 2. compare RHpE and judges’ scores; and 3. document deviations in gaits from Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) guidelines. Video recordings of 147 competitors from nine World Cup competitions were assessed. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient tested the correlation between RHpE and judges’ scores. The median RHpE score was 3 (IQR 1, 4; range 0, 7). There was a moderate negative correlation (Spearman rho −0.40, p < 0.001) between the RHpE scores and the judges’ scores. Mouth open with separation of the teeth for ≥10 s (68%), head behind vertical ≥10° ≥10 s (67%), an intense stare for ≥5 s (30%) and repeated tail swishing (29%) were the most frequent RHpE behaviours. Deviations from FEI guidelines were most frequent in passage, piaffe, canter flying-changes, canter pirouettes and “halt-immobility-rein back five steps-collected trot”. In conclusion, most horses appeared to work comfortably for the majority of the test. Further investigation of the influence of a double bridle compared with a snaffle bridle on head position and mouth opening is merited.

An investigation of behaviour during tacking‐up and mounting in ridden sports and leisure horses

SummaryBackgroundThere has been no large‐scale, evidence‐based study on horses’ behaviour while being tacked ‐up or mounted.ObjectivesTo describe equine behaviour during tacking‐up and mounting.Study designCross‐sectional, prospective observational study, using a convenience sample.MethodsA purpose‐designed protocol for documenting behaviour during tacking‐up and mounting was developed. Horses were recruited from 11 locations, from both amateur and professional riders. Horses (n = 193) were observed during acquisition of predefined information from the owners. Behaviour data were recorded during bridling, placement of the saddle, girthing and mounting.ResultsThe majority (67%) were bridled first. The median sum of abnormal behaviours during tacking‐up was 10/64 (interquartile range [IQR] 7.13; range 0.33). There was an equal frequency of abnormal behaviours during bridling and saddling in 52% of horses; 34% of horses showed more abnormal behaviours during saddling than bridling; 15% of horses showed more abnormal behaviours during bridling than saddling. The duration of abnormal behaviours related to total tacking‐up time was 25–75% in 51% of horses. There was a positive relationship between the sum of abnormal behaviours and the duration of abnormal behaviours (P = 0.0001). Repeatedly chomping on the bit occurred most frequently during bridling (67%). Ears back (57–65%) and an intense stare (54–62%) were similar in all phases. Fidgeting was more common during saddle placement (32%) and girthing (21%), than bridling (9%). Tail swishing was more frequent during saddle placement (20%) and girthing (34%), than bridling (10%). Turning the head to the girth was only seen during saddle placement and girthing (11 and 40%, respectively), in addition to attempting to bite (5 and 15%, respectively) and rubbing the nose (8 and 21%, respectively). The median sum of abnormal behaviours during mounting was 1/30 (IQR 1.3; range 0.12).Main limitationsAbsence of many nonlame horses with correctly fitting tack.ConclusionAbnormal behaviour during tacking‐up and mounting was common.

Effect of Pen Size on Stress Responses of Stall-Housed Horses Receiving One Hour of Daily Turnout

Group turnout provides important socializing opportunities for horses, particularly those that are primarily stalled. A high percentage of equine injuries occur during group turnout, which could partly be due to the physical constraints of fencing. To investigate appropriate paddock sizes for group turnouts, horses (n = 12) from a single herd were divided into groups of 4, stalled for 24 hours, and then turned out for 1 hour into one of three differently sized pens: 342, 263, and 184 m2 per horse. Groups rotated through pens across 3 days, receiving one treatment per day. Blood was sampled for cortisol concentrations at 08:00 hours each morning, and then at 15 and 60 minutes into the turn out sessions, and 60 minutes after return to individual stalls. Groups rotated through three turnout times: 09:00, 12:00, 14:00 hours. Counts of agonistic behaviors (chasing, contact biting, and kicking) and low-level threats (pinned ears, tail swishing, bite and kick threats) were recorded. When turned out in pens that provided 342 m2 per horse, horses exhibited reduced plasma cortisol concentrations by 15 minutes after turnout and at 1 hour after return to their stalls (P < .05). Horses in pens providing 184 m2 per horse exhibited greater agonistic (P < .001) and low-level threat (P < .01) behaviors than horses in larger pens. These data provide insight into appropriate pen sizes for horses from established herds. Providing at least 342 m2 per horse may reduce the chance of injury in horses accustomed to group turnout.

Short communication: Effects of mesh leggings on fly pressure and fly avoidance behaviors of pastured dairy cows

Ectoparasitic stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans [L.]), horn flies (Haematobia irritans [L.]), and face flies (Musca autumnalis De Geer) negatively affect dry matter intake, milk production, and health of pastured dairy cows. These flies cause fly avoidance behaviors and are a major welfare concern for dairy producers. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of mesh Shoofly Leggins (Stone Manufacturing & Supply, Kansas City, MO) on fly avoidance behaviors and numbers of flies attacking pastured dairy cows. In a crossover design, lactating dairy cows (n = 80) were randomly assigned to groups with and without leggings (Shoofly Leggins worn on all legs). All cows were managed in one group. Cows were observed for 2-wk periods, and then treatments were reversed in the next 2-wk interval. Counts of stable flies, horn flies, and face flies on all cows were recorded twice daily (once in morning per cow: 0930 to 1230 h; and once in the afternoon per cow: 1330 to 1630 h), 3 times per wk on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday of each week during the study period. The total number of flies per cow was greater on cows with leggings than cows without leggings. The number of horn flies per cow was greater on cows in with leggings (26.4 flies/side) compared with cows without leggings (24.1 flies/side). Stable fly numbers were similar for cows with and without leggings (12.8 flies/leg). A random subset of 20 focal cows per group was observed during 5-min intervals to record frequencies of 4 behaviors: leg stomps, head tosses, skin twitches, and tail swishes. Counts of head tosses (2.6 vs. 3.1), skin twitches (20.9 vs. 19.6), and tail swishes (21.3 vs. 19.3) were similar for cows without leggings versus cows with leggings, respectively. However, foot stomps were 39% lower for cows with leggings compared with cows without leggings, and leg stomps were 26% higher in the afternoon than in the morning (2.9 vs. 2.4, respectively). A positive correlation was observed between stable and horn flies and all insect avoidance behaviors. Numbers of stable flies were 1.5 times greater in the afternoon than in the morning. The results of this study indicated that flies were associated with cow fly avoidance behaviors regardless of the use of leggings, but leggings effectively reduced foot stomps by 39%, so their use may provide some relief from stable fly injury to pastured dairy cows.

Effects of a light-colored cotton rug use on horse thermoregulation and behavior indicators of stress

When environmental temperatures exceed 25°C, horses are potentially subjected to thermal stress. It has therefore been recommended that horses should be provided with shade during hot days. However, this is not possible for horses grazing on many Australian rural properties. Although the positive effect that solar radiation blocking can have on reducing heat absorption is understood by some, conflicting views, mostly anecdotal, exist on the use of a light cotton rug on horses for this purpose. The aim of this pilot study was to examine the effects of wearing a light-colored cotton rug on horse heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR), rectal temperature (RT), sweat production, and selected stress-related behaviors. Data were collected for 2 groups of university-owned horses (n = 8 and 10, respectively). The horses were tied in an outdoor arena in direct sunlight for 2 hours on 2 different days (D1 and D2). Baseline behavioral and physiological data (T0) were noted, recording frequency (n/10 min) of tail swishing, licking-chewing, pawing, repeated head movements, and self-care and recording HR, RR, RT, and sweat production using a sweat score (0 = none to 5 = excessive). Half of the horses were then fitted with a light cotton rug, and all horses were observed and monitored at regular 15-minute intervals for a further 2 hours (T1-T8). The effect of repetition (D1 and D2) and time (T0-T8) was not significant; therefore, the data were combined and analyzed using the Mann-Whitney U-test with rug (rugged/unrugged) as the independent variable. RT and sweat score were significantly lower in unrugged horses compared to rugged horses (37.4 ± 0.3 vs. 37.7 ± 0.3°C; 0.5 ± 0.8 vs. 1.9 ± 1.3, respectively; P < 0.001). However, unrugged horses showed a significantly higher frequency of tail swishing and pawing (23.1 ± 25.9 vs. 8.7 ± 11.0 n/10 min; P < 0.001; 9.4 ± 21.2 vs. 5.8 ± 17.4 n/10 min; P = 0.018). Although wearing a rug did not have an effect on the other parameters, it is worth noting that HR, RR, and the occurrence of stress-related behaviors were higher than normal values for equids, suggesting that horses were potentially prone to discomfort. Overall, it appears that the use of light-colored cotton rugs may help reduce the irritation caused to horses by flying insects as evidenced by less tail swishing but may also lead to an increase in internal temperature and subsequently sweat production, increasing the risk of thermal stress and loss of electrolytes. Wearing a rug is not an adequate substitute for the provision of shade when ambient temperatures exceed 25°C.

Quantitative Behavioral Analysis of First Successful Captive Breeding of Endangered Ozark Hellbenders

Understanding behaviors associated with reproductive events is vital to management of captive breeding programs for threatened and endangered species. The Ozark hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis bishopi) is a federally endangered aquatic salamander with only one successful captive breeding program (the Saint Louis Zoo’s Ron Goellner Center for Hellbender Conservation). Although anecdotal observations have been reported for hellbender reproductive behavior from field observations, no quantitative assessments have been made. We quantified hellbender behavior from video-recordings of three successful breeding events at the Saint Louis Zoo that occurred in 2012, including aggressive, sexual, social, and locomotory behaviors. We used transition matrices to organize these data into kinematic diagrams that illustrated behavioral sequences for five time periods: pre-oviposition (2 nights), first oviposition night, inter-oviposition, second oviposition night, and post-oviposition. General activity and agonistic behaviors increased moderately through the first oviposition night, peaked during inter-oviposition, and declined abruptly following the second oviposition night. Agonistic behavior included bites, charges, chases, and flight. Female-female aggression was common. Surfacing (presumably for accessory air breathing) followed intense activity. Presumed courtship behaviors (tail swishing and circling) occurred at low rates. During oviposition, females remained in the nest box for 1—2+ hours. We encourage managers of captive breeding programs to use quantitative behavioral analyses to pin-point critical time periods and conditions for successful reproduction.

Effects of crowding and water restriction stress on creole goat reproduction in the Oaxacan Sierra Mixteca, Mexico.

Chronic stress disrupts reproductive efficiency. Yet, the manner in which stress disturbs reproduction in goats is currently unknown. The Oaxacan Mixteca region is one of Mexico's poorest, with high levels of deforestation, high ambient temperatures, and lack of water. Native goats of the Oaxacan Mixteca Region live in these stressful conditions, as well as in overcrowded and water restricted conditions. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of these very stressful conditions on the reproduction of male and female goats. Control group was uncrowded, with daily water supply; stress group was overcrowded, with water restriction. The study was conducted from September 2015 to February 2016; the expression of reproductive behaviour and variations of cortisol levels were assessed. In females, oestradiol and progesterone were evaluated during the oestrous cycle. In males, testosterone levels were evaluated before and during reproductive activity. Sexual behaviour decreased in stressed goats: approaching, tail swishing, urination, vaginal discharge and flank contraction decreased in stressed females. Anogenital sniffing, licking, Flehmen reflex, bleating, mount attempts and mounts decreased in male goats. Cortisol levels in stressed animals were higher compared with control animals. Oestradiol and Progesterone levels in stressed females were significantly lower during the follicular and luteal phase, respectively, compared with control females. Testosterone levels in stressed males were lower than in control males, both before and during reproduction. These results indicate that even though goats from the Oaxacan Mixteca Region are habituated to their environmental conditions, they are still stressed by them, as shown by a higher activation of the adrenal axis in stressed goats than in control goats. High cortisol levels may induce low oestradiol levels in females and low testosterone levels in males, as well as a disruption in the expression of their reproductive behaviour.

Effectiveness of Stable Fly Protectants on Adult Horses

Blood feeding flies are common pests affecting horses throughout the world. However, little information is available regarding protectant efficacy for reducing fly annoyance behaviors in horses. The objective of this research was to assess the efficacy of five different fly protectants when used on adult horses. Using a Latin square design, six adult horses were individually penned in outdoor drylots for 2 hours each day for 5 consecutive days over 6 weeks. Horses received one of six treatments each week: leggings, citronella spray, leg bands, permethrin spray, pyrethrin spray, or a control (no protectant). Each day, horses were observed from 1230 to 1430 hours immediately after protectant application. Stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans L.) on horses' legs and bodies were counted at minutes 0, 30, 60 and 120. Fly annoyance behaviors were counted in four 30 minutes periods: tail swishes (for 5 minutes); shoulder twitches (for 5 minutes); and head-backs and hoof stomps (simultaneously for 20 minutes) for a total of 2 hours. Fly annoyance behaviors were reduced by treatment (P < .01). Leggings reduced hoof stomps from 6.6 down to 2.3 stomps per min, leg bands and leggings reduced head-backs from 3.7 down to 2.0 and 1.6 per min, respectively, and citronella spray reduced tail swishes and shoulder twitches from 47 down to 36 per min, and 34 down to 23 per min, respectively. While none of the products eliminated all fly annoyance behaviors, leggings, leg bands, and citronella spray provided better benefits than the other sprays.

Publisher's Note

Abstract When environmental temperatures exceed 25°C, horses are potentially subjected to thermal stress. It has therefore been recommended that horses should be provided with shade during hot days. However, this is not possible for horses grazing on many Australian rural properties. Although the positive effect that solar radiation blocking can have on reducing heat absorption is understood by some, conflicting views, mostly anecdotal, exist on the use of a light cotton rug on horses for this purpose. The aim of this pilot study was to examine the effects of wearing a light-colored cotton rug on horse heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR), rectal temperature (RT), sweat production, and selected stress-related behaviors. Data were collected for 2 groups of university-owned horses (n = 8 and 10, respectively). The horses were tied in an outdoor arena in direct sunlight for 2 hours on 2 different days (D1 and D2). Baseline behavioral and physiological data (T0) were noted, recording frequency (n/10 min) of tail swishing, licking-chewing, pawing, repeated head movements, and self-care and recording HR, RR, RT, and sweat production using a sweat score (0 = none to 5 = excessive). Half of the horses were then fitted with a light cotton rug, and all horses were observed and monitored at regular 15-minute intervals for a further 2 hours (T1-T8). The effect of repetition (D1 and D2) and time (T0-T8) was not significant; therefore, the data were combined and analyzed using the Mann-Whitney U -test with rug (rugged/unrugged) as the independent variable. RT and sweat score were significantly lower in unrugged horses compared to rugged horses (37.4 ± 0.3 vs. 37.7 ± 0.3°C; 0.5 ± 0.8 vs. 1.9 ± 1.3, respectively; P P P = 0.018). Although wearing a rug did not have an effect on the other parameters, it is worth noting that HR, RR, and the occurrence of stress-related behaviors were higher than normal values for equids, suggesting that horses were potentially prone to discomfort. Overall, it appears that the use of light-colored cotton rugs may help reduce the irritation caused to horses by flying insects as evidenced by less tail swishing but may also lead to an increase in internal temperature and subsequently sweat production, increasing the risk of thermal stress and loss of electrolytes. Wearing a rug is not an adequate substitute for the provision of shade when ambient temperatures exceed 25°C.