Systems In Uganda Research Articles

THE EXTENT AND CAUSES OF BANANA (MUSA SPP.) MARKET DISTORTIONS IN UGANDA

The banana (Musa spp.) marketing system in Uganda is very complex, with a long value chain of actors from farmers to consumers. A market study was conducted in eight districts from central, eastern and western Uganda to assess the extent to which upcountry middlemen in the market chain affect farmers' prices and the distribution of price margins. The results indicated that 70% of farmers market their produce through middlemen, receiving Ugsh (Ugandan Shillings) 1,408/bunch ($1 = 1,750 Ugsh), equivalent to 28% of wholesalers' price at the nearest loading center. This implied that some of the agents and brokers shared part of the farmgate prices and reduced farmers' prices by 72%. Analysis of banana market shares and gross margins in central and western Uganda showed that upcountry agents and brokers obtained a market share of 35% out of the consumer market price, while farmers' market share was only 20%. About 11% of farmers were selling as informal groups, obtaining 44% of the wholesalers' price at the nearest loading center. Only 19% of the farmers organized into collective marketing groups. Selling directly to wholesalers or contracted buyers earned Ugsh 3,360/bunch, equivalent to 67% of the wholesalers' price at the nearest loading center. Those farmers were also able to raise large volumes of 520, 622 and 420 bunches/month from the central, eastern and western region, respectively and attracted bulk buyers with higher prices. The individual farmers could only sell small volumes of 44, 18 and 56 bunches/month in the same eastern, central and western regions and were unable to attract large scale buyers. We conclude that selling individually through middlemen incurs a loss of Ugsh 913,536/year/farmer due to farmgate price distortions by middlemen.

Free education and social inequality in Ugandan primary schools: A step backward or a step in the right direction?

The intent of this study is to understand both direct and indirect resource effects in the context of a mass education system in Uganda. We find that under certain conditions, policies that promote physical resource availability can lead to substantial equity gains. A school's social composition appears to improve educational quality but it is also related to wider gaps between rich and poor students. We also show that heavier teaching workloads have the most damaging effect on low-income students who have fewer private resources to devote to academic pursuits. The policy implication is that equalising access to formal primary education does not guarantee equitable outcomes.

The agronomic and economic benefits of fertilizer and mulch use in highland banana systems in Uganda

Banana is the most important food crop in Uganda. However, there has been a decline in productivity, attributed to declining soil fertility, drought, pests and diseases and crop management factors. This study aimed to explore the possibility of increasing yields through the use of fertilizer and mulch, and to evaluate the benefits of these inputs across the major banana producing regions in Uganda. This study was carried out in 179 smallholder plots in Central, South, Southwest and East Uganda in 2006/7. Half of the plots were ‘demonstration plots’ of an agricultural development project, while the other half were neighboring farmer plots that acted as ‘control’. Demonstration plots received mineral fertilizer (100% of plots), averaging 71 N, 8 P, 32 K kg ha −1 yr −1 and external mulch from grass and crop residues (64% of plots), whereas control plots received no mineral fertilizer and little external mulch (26% of plots). Demonstration plots had significantly ( P ⩽ 0.05) higher yields than control plot in Central, South and Southwest, but average yield increases varied from 4.8 t ha −1 yr −1 (Southwest) to 8.0 (Central), and 10.0 (South). Average weevil corm damage (3%) and nematode-induced root necrosis (7%) was low and similar for both plot types, so yield increases could only be explained by the use of fertilizer and mulch. The highest demonstration plot yield increases were observed where fertilizer addressed key nutrient deficiencies identified using the compositional nutrient diagnosis approach. Farm gate bunch prices declined from 0.17 (Central Uganda) to 0.07 USD kg −1 (Southwest Uganda). Consequently, average marginal rate of return (MRR) of fertilizer and mulch use ranged from 0.1 (Southwest) to 5.8 (Central). The technologies were likely to be acceptable to farmers (MRR ⩾ 1.00) up to 160 km away from the capital. Fertilizer use is likely to be acceptable in all regions (MRR = 0.7–9.4) if local fertilizer prices of 2006/7 (average USD 0.56 kg −1 of fertilizer) declined by 50%. Doubling of fertilizer prices is likely to make fertilizer use unacceptable beyond 100 km away from the capital. The study concludes that there is scope for increased input use in banana systems in Uganda, but that regional variations in crop response, input/output prices, and price fluctuations have to be taken into account.

Karamoja with the Rest of 'The Rest of Uganda'

The setting of abstract impossible goals turns the means by which these goals are to be achieved into ends (Illich 1973: 40). In a paper on development interventions in Karamoja, presented at a large conference on African pastoralism, the author draws attention to the tendency of focusing on 'technical' targets, defined in abstract, with little connection to the production systems and the societies of producers on the ground. Examples of this kind of 'system-blind' approach discussed in the paper include the prevention of bush burning in order to fight soil erosion, the construction of dams and valley-tanks in order to increase production, as well as initiatives for the control of animal disease, and for disarmament. In each case, the author examines the long-term effects of interventions showing how, once integrated into the actual (but ignored) context of production and social dynamics on the ground, the 'solution' in principle resulted in even bigger problems in practice. System-blind cessation of burning lowered the nutritional value of dry-season grazing, while favouring bush encroachment and the spreading of ticks and tsetse flies. System-blind water development resulted in large-scale soil erosion and the dramatic disappearance of perennial grasses, as well as social unrest as the stocking rates supported by the expansion of accessible dry-season rangelands at the periphery of Karamoja became unsustainable for the (unexpanded) central belt during the wet season. System-blind control of epizootics triggered even more unsustainable herd growth rates (as well as top-down destocking measures unmatched by existing marketing infrastructure). With droughts, crops failed as expected, but now in the areas where the annual grasses had replaced the perennials, exceptionally large stock numbers were left without fodder. As the introduction of dysfunctional relationships in the production and livelihood systems at the regional level triggered abnormal outbursts of violence, system-blind law-enforcement measures were focusing on disarmament and punishment, exacerbating and expanding, rather than reducing, the reasons that had triggered the increase in violence in the first place. That paper was published almost forty years ago (Baker 1975). In fact, Baker writes about development measures pursued in Uganda under the British administration including water development in Karamoja with dams and valley-tanks, a modernization idea from 1938, (1) the successful fight against the East Coast Fever, 'the great drought of the early 1950s' and those of 1961 and 1965-66 (ibid. 199), the outburst of raiding in the 1960s (740 recorded deaths in 1966 alone), and disarmament by ceding 'spears' (ibid. 190; 199). There is even mention of climate change (ibid. 196). Writing in the 1970s, Baker uses a language of 'balance' that was soon to be questioned, (2) but the main point to draw from his analysis is methodological: as the foundation and precondition to any development programme in the rangelands, it is necessary to understand the pastoral production system 'as a working model' (ibid. 201) rather than dismissing it in principle as what needs to be replaced. Remarkably, the same idea is now stated upfront in the Policy Framework for Pastoralism recently adopted by the African Union (AU): 'Many past attempts to support pastoral development failed to recognize the strengths of pastoralism' (AU 2010: 3). Read today, Baker's analysis begs the question of to what extent this legacy of system-blind pastoral development was embedded in relevant infrastructure, institutions, and expertise in Uganda, and therefore was inevitably transmitted to the regimes that followed independence and so continue to play a role in present-day development approaches regarding Karamoja. Policy interventions and strategies, especially resource management policies, have affected pastoral systems in Uganda for almost a century. …

Occurence of plant parasitic nematodes and factors that enhance population build-up in cereal-based cropping systems in Uganda

Plant parasitic nematodes remain a major challenge to crop production that has hitherto received minmum research attention in sub-Saharan Africa. This paper gives the diversity of nematode genera and species associated with cereal crops and indicates the possibility of nemadode population build up due to production intensification especially in soils with high sand content. Twenty-two nematode species from 10 genera of plant parasitic nematodes were recovered in root samples collected from 5 cereal crops (barley, maize, millet, sorghum and wheat) collected from 293 sites in five major cereal growing areas of Uganda (230 maize samples, 18 millet samples, 21 sorghum samples, 18 wheat samples and 6 barley samples), grown singly or as intercrops. Of these, 12 nematode species were encountered in maize roots, namely Aphelenchoides arachides, Aphelenchoides eltaybi, Ditylenchus spp, Helicotylenchus dihystera, Meloidogyne spp., Pratylenchus brachyurus, Pratylenchus goodeyi, Pratylenchus zeae, Scutellonema brachyurus, Scutellonema paralabiatum, Scutellonema clathricaudatum andRotylenchulus borealis. Based on populations of the nematode species recovered, four distinct nematode groupings were observed: those that were widespread and abundant (Pratylenchus zeae and P. brachyurus); those that were widespread but less abundant (Scutellonema spp., Meloidogyne spp., Rotylenchulus spp. and Helicotylenchusspp.); those that were localized but very abundant (Pratylenchus goodeyi), and those that were localized but less abundant (Aphelenchoides spp. and Ditylenchus spp.). Intensified maize cropping systems with/without noncereal rotations increased risk of Pratylenchus zeae, Scutellonema spp. and Helicotylenchus spp. infection of maize.

Media and Mental Health in Uganda

The media is largely regarded as an important stakeholder in health service delivery, with a great influence on public attitudes. However, little is known about its interest in mental health and the guiding factors that influence media coverage of mental health issues. This article describes the importance accorded to mental health by the media and the factors that influence media coverage of mental health issues in Uganda. Semi-structured interviews were held with representatives from six prominent media houses as part of the situational analysis of the mental health system in Uganda. Data was analyzed using Nvivo 7 qualitative data analysis software. The media was found to be interested and actively involved in health initiatives, but with little attention devoted to mental health. Coverage and interest in mental health was noted to be mainly dependent on the individual journalists' interests, and mostly for personal reasons. Low interest was largely attributed to mental health being perceived as a non-priority area, and the fact that mental illness is not a major contributor to mortality. Media coverage and reporting is guided by prioritization of the Health Department. The media in Uganda is an important stakeholder in the health care system with a key role of advocacy, publicity and mass education. Media houses however are less interested in mental health as evidenced by low coverage of mental health issues. This calls for advocacy and sensitization as a way of persuading media for more involvement in mental health initiatives.

THE DEPTH DISTRIBUTION OF SEISMICITY AT THE NORTHERN END OF THE RWENZORI MOUNTAINS: IMPLICATIONS FOR HEAT FLOW IN THE WESTERN BRANCH OF THE EAST AFRICAN RIFT SYSTEM IN UGANDA

Data from a six-month deployment of seismic stations around the northern end of the Rwenzori Mountains have been used to investigate the depth extent of seismicity and its implications for heat flow in the Western Branch of the East Africa Rift System in Uganda. Previous seismicity studies of the Western Branch in Uganda show earthquake nucleation at depths greater than or equal to 40 km suggesting that heat flow from the rift is not elevated. However, heat flow elsewhere in the Western Branch (e.g., western Tanzania and Lakes Kivu and Tanganyika) is elevated, similar to the elevated heat flow in the Eastern Branch of the East African Rift System in Kenya. To investigate further the depth extent of seismicity in the Western Branch, seismological data were collected and analysed to obtain accurate hypocenters using both standard and double difference location algorithms. Focal mechanisms were also obtained to place constraints on the local stress regime. Results show that seismicity is concentrated along the major border faults of the Rwenzori horst, suggesting an eastward dip on the Ruimi-Wasa Fault and a northwestward dip on the Toro-Bunyoro Fault. Fault motions are predominantly normal, with possible strike slip motions between the Ruimi-Wasa and Toro-Bunyoro Faults. The number of earthquakes increases with depth, peaking at 16 km and falling sharply by 22 km. Strength envelope models indicate that heat flow in the range of 54 mWm −2 to 66 mWm −2 is required to explain this result. A heat flow of 54 to 66 mWm −2 is similar to heat flow in other mobile belts in East Africa away from major rift valleys, and therefore heat flow around the Rwenzori Mountains does not appear to be elevated. This finding does not preclude the possibility of a deep seated (i.e., mantle) thermal anomaly beneath the rift, which may not have had sufficient time to reach the surface.

A Description of the Pension System in Uganda: Need for Reform

The current pension system in Uganda is similar to those in most Anglo-speaking countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. The system is fragmented lacking a policy framework for its efficient operation. Consequently, coverage is low, the public service schemes are unfunded and expensive and the governance of the mandatory pension scheme is unsatisfactory. Private pension schemes operate voluntarily without a law save for the common law principles of trusts and are not supervised. The system is ripe for fundamental reforms which should include the introduction of a supervisory framework, parametric reforms in the public service schemes in order to manage the ever rising implicit pension debt, introduction of best practice governance principles in both the National Social Security Fund and private occupational pension schemes. While pension reform is a major policy which the government should carefully consider, yet it is possible for the same to be developed in phases.

Seroprevalence and potential risk of bovine brucellosis in zerograzing and pastoral dairy systems in Uganda

A cross-sectional study was conducted in Uganda between November 2006 and February 2007 to assess the seroprevalence and risk of brucellosis in zerograzing and pastoral dairy systems; two major sources of milk in Uganda, 80% of which is sold unpasteurized to consumers through informal channels. A total of 723 cattle comprised of 497 animals from the pastoral system and 226 animals from the zerograzing system were tested for antibodies against natural B. abortus infection using the competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (C-ELISA). Herd-level seroprevalence was 100% in the pastoral system and 5.5% (95% CI: 1.8, 9.2) in the zerograzing system. The animal-level seroprevalence and within-herd range of brucellosis in cattle in the pastoral system were 34.0% (95% CI: 29.9, 38.1) and 8.1-75.9%, while for those in the zerograzing system were 3.3% (95% CI: 0.9, 5.7) and 0-9.0%. Abortion rates of 23% and 0% among seropositive cows vis-à-vis 5.4% and 1.9% among seronegative cows were recorded in the pastoral and zerograzing systems, respectively. The risk of natural B. abortus infection was higher among older cattle (>24 m) (Odds ratio [OR] = 1.83, 95% CI: 1.25-2.67) and dry cows (OR = 2.01, 95% CI: 1.23-3.31) in the pastoral system, and in calves aged 0-6 m (OR = 5.72, 95% CI: 1.04-31.41) in the zerograzing system. Implementing a culling program in the zerograzing system to eliminate the existing low risk of brucellosis and targeting calves in the pastoral systems for vaccination could avert the cost-related limitation of brucellosis control in Uganda.

Turnaround: The National Resistance Movement and the Reintroduction of a Multiparty System in Uganda

This article addresses the process behind the decision of the National Resistance Movement (NRM) to reintroduce multiparty politics in Uganda. Restrictions on party activity were introduced when the NRM assumed power in 1986 and were upheld in a referendum in 2000. In March 2003 the NRM u-turned on the issue and agreed a return to multiparty politics in Uganda. The article seeks to explain why the NRM leadership sanctioned a transition to multiparty politics and, secondly, how the NRM leadership sought to remain in control of the transition process. We find that the reintroduction of a multiparty system in Uganda primarily was stimulated by internal conflicts between factions within the NRM and much less by international (donor) pressure. We show that the decision to move to multiparty politics was made contingent on other constitutional changes which enabled the executive and the central political leadership to remain in power.

Status of practice of climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies among intensive dairy systems in Uganda

Status of practice of climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies among intensive dairy systems in Uganda

Status of practice of climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies among intensive dairy systems in Uganda

This article was submitted without an abstract, please refer to the full-text PDF file.

Intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnancy: the incremental cost-effectiveness of a new delivery system in Uganda

The main objective of this study was to assess whether traditional birth attendants, drug-shop vendors, community reproductive health workers and adolescent peer mobilisers could administer intermittent preventive treatment (IPTp) with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) to pregnant women. The study was implemented in 21 community clusters (intervention) and four clusters where health centres provided routine IPTp (control). The primary outcome measures were the proportion of women who completed two doses of SP; the effect on anaemia, parasitaemia and low birth weight; and the incremental cost-effectiveness of the intervention. The study enrolled 2785 pregnant women. The majority, 1404/2081 (67.5%) receiving community-based care, received SP early and adhered to the two recommended doses compared with 281/704 (39.9%) at health centres (P<0.001). In addition, women receiving community-based care had fewer episodes of anaemia or severe anaemia and fewer low birth weight babies. The cost per woman receiving the full course of IPTp was, however, higher when delivered via community care at US$2.60 compared with US$2.30 at health centres, due to the additional training costs. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of the community delivery system was Uganda shillings 1869 (US$1.10) per lost disability-adjusted life-year (DALY) averted. In conclusion, community-based delivery increased access and adherence to IPTp and was cost-effective.

Procurement planning and accountability of local government procurement systems in developing countries: evidence from uganda

The contribution of planning in facilitating an efficient and effective performance of public sector organizations is generally undisputed in both developed and developing countries. Its contribution can be at both central and local government levels of public sector management. This article examines the relationship between procurement planning and accountability of local government procurement systems in Uganda. The findings arose from a study that was conducted among 99 local government stakeholders selected from 11 Districts of Uganda, using a correlation research design. The data was analyzed using principal component factor analysis that aimed at identifying the critical components of procurement planning and accountable local governments systems in Uganda. Consequently, correlation analysis to establish the direction and magnitude to which the two variables were related was conducted and results are presented. The findings revealed a significant positive relationship between procurement planning and accountable local government procurement systems in Uganda. These results are compared to international research findings, and suggestions are offered for management, policy making, future research and efficient accountable local government operations.

A cross-sectional study of bovine tuberculosis in the transhumant and agro-pastoral cattle herds in the border areas of Katakwi and Moroto districts, Uganda

A study to determine the prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in the transhumant and agro-pastoral cattle herds in the border areas of Katakwi and Moroto districts in Uganda was carried out from July 2006 to January 2007 using comparative intradermal tuberculin test containing bovine and avian PPDs. A total of 1470 animals, 612 (41.6%) males and 858 (58.4%) females, 883 (60%) young, 555 (37.8%) adult and 32 (2.2%) old animals were included. The study involved a cross-sectional multistage sampling technique with random selection of individual animals from a herd. The results revealed a 1.3% overall prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in cattle herds in the study area, with a marked variation between sub-counties. The highest recorded prevalence was 6.0% in Kapujan, while no cases were recorded in Ongogonja, Magoro and Katakwi sub-counties. Distinctly different patterns in the avian-bovine reactions were also found in different sub-counties. A multivariate logistic regression showed more positive reactions (OR = 6.3; 95%CI (1.4-26.34) in females than males. BTB prevalence did not differ significantly between cattle maintained in pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems. The study demonstrated a relatively low prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in local zebu cattle reared under traditional husbandry systems in Uganda, suggesting low infectiousness of the disease under such mode of production. The risk associated with the consumption of raw milk among the pastoral communities and that, the pooling of milk together from different animals is a common practice, warrants more investigation into the zoonotic transmission of tuberculosis within these communities.

Stress response of a freshwater clam along an abiotic gradient: too much oxygen may limit distribution

SummaryDistribution and abundance patterns are influenced by cellular responses to abiotic stressors.The freshwater clamSphaeriumsp. inhabits swamp/stream systems in Uganda, in which dissolved O2(DO), pH and water transparency form ecotonal gradients along tributary streams. Along a swamp/stream transect, clam abundance was negatively related to DO, pH and transparency; clams were most abundant in the hypoxic/acidic swamp, less abundant in the ecotone, and absent from stream sites (neutral pH and higher DO).We tested the hypothesis that individuals living in low abundance at the distribution edge have increased stress by assessing cellular‐level stress indicators in clams from four sites: dense swamp interior (reference site), swamp margin, ecotone and stream. Compared with swamp interior clams, stream clams had decreased RNA : DNA ratio (decreased protein synthesis and growth) and increased DNA and RNA oxidation (free radical damage). Of seven stress proteins related to general damage and free radical detoxification, expression of nearly all were higher in margin and ecotone clams than in swamp interior or stream clams.This pattern, which includes the first measurement of DNA and RNA oxidation in a natural population, demonstrates that stress increases along the transect, inversely to clam abundance. Additionally, this pattern is consistent with free radical stress, which suggests that inhabiting swamp conditions minimizes oxidative damage in this species.

Composition, distribution, and relative abundance of ants in banana farming systems in Uganda

Abstract A survey of ant composition and relative abundance was conducted in farmers’ fields in the banana growing areas of Uganda in 2003 to assess the effects of farming practices on ant species composition in banana fields. This survey was done to identify potentially important predators of the banana weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar). Work was repeated in both one wet and one dry season at all locations. We sampled at 39 farms in four regions and found 55 species of ants in pitfall traps and 24 species in fish and honey baits. When banana weevil larvae were exposed as baits, 11 ant species were attracted, of which Pheidole sp. 1, Pheidole sp. 2, Pheidole sp. 3, Paratrechina sp. 1, and Lepisiota sp. 1 were the most abundant. Seventeen ant species were found in pseudostems and 34 in corms of live banana plants and residues of harvested plants. High species richness and abundance especially inside plants and residues, suggest that ants are important foragers in banana plantations. Seven of the ant species found in plants demonstrated significant ability to remove banana weevil eggs artificially inserted in corms. Two species, Odontomachus troglodytes Santschi and Pheidole sp. 2, were able to remove eggs from naturally infested corms. O. troglodytes removed 33–68% of the eggs in naturally infested corms, while Pheidole sp. 2 removed 38–60% of such eggs. The attraction of O. troglodytes and Pheidole sp. 2 to banana weevil-infested plant pieces, their close association with banana plants and residues, and their ability to extract artificially and naturally introduced banana weevil eggs from plant tissue suggest that these two species may have significant potential to consume weevil immature stages in plants and residues.

Leishmaniasis, Chagas disease and Human African Trypanosomiasis revisited: Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries

Since 2002 600 public health and policy experts from more than 100 countries have contributed a broad range of specialist expertise to the second edition of Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries (DCPDC). The project assessed disease control priorities in developing countries conducted evidence-based analysis and produced resource materials for policy makers. Leishmaniasis Human African Trypanosomiasis and Chagas disease were recognized as the worlds most neglected diseases in 2003. Exclusively affecting those living in rural areas of low-income countries their most neglected status arises from their lack of effective affordable or easy-to-use drug treatments. These diseases affect millions and kill tens of thousands each year but those affected are some of the worlds poorest and thus no market incentive existed to develop treatments. Therapeutic options remain unavailable or very expensive for leishmaniasis trypanosomiasis and Chagas disease and their inclusion in the second edition of DCPDC helps highlight some of the difficulties still to overcome. (excerpt)

Adaptation and stability analysis of sweet potato varieties for low‐input systems in Uganda

AbstractSixteen sweet potato varieties were evaluated for fresh storage root yield in 20 trials during 2000–2001 for three seasons in four locations in Uganda. Of the 16 varieties, 11 were developed by farmers and five by a central breeding programme. The behaviour of the varieties was quantified in terms of wide adaptation (genotypic mean across trials), specific adaptation (genotypic predictions for specific locations) and stability (Shukla stability variance). With respect to all three aspects of yield behaviour, farmer varieties performed on average better than the official varieties. The results illustrate the potential that farmer varieties can have in the improvement of sweet potato in Uganda and other regions where high diversity of sweet potato landraces exists.

Strategies, Effectiveness and Rationale of Vector-borne Disease Control in the Pastoralist System of South-western Uganda

In Uganda, control of vector-borne diseases is mainly in form of vector control, and chemotherapy. There have been reports that acaricides are being misused in the pastoralist systems in Uganda. This is because of the belief by scientists that intensive application of acaricide is uneconomical and unsustainable particularly in the indigenous cattle. The objective of this study was to investigate the strategies, rationale and effectiveness of vector-borne disease control by pastoralists. To systematically carry out these investigations, a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods was used, in both the collection and the analysis of data. Cattle keepers were found to control tick-borne diseases (TBDs) mainly through spraying, in contrast with the control of trypanosomosis for which the main method of control was by chemotherapy. The majority of herders applied acaricides weekly and used an acaricide of lower strength than recommended by the manufacturers. They used very little acaricide wash, and spraying was preferred to dipping. Furthermore, pastoralists either treated sick animals themselves or did nothing at all, rather than using veterinary personnel. Oxytetracycline (OTC) was the drug commonly used in the treatment of TBDs. Nevertheless, although pastoralists may not have been following recommended practices in their control of ticks and tick-borne diseases, they were neither wasteful nor uneconomical and their methods appeared to be effective. Trypanosomosis was not a problem either in Sembabule or Mbarara district. Those who used trypanocides were found to use more drugs than were necessary.