Synthetic Psychoactive Drugs Research Articles

Psychoactive Drug MDMA

MDMA, commonly known as ecstasy or molly, is a synthetic psychoactive drug with a complex history. It produces feelings of increased empathy, emotional connection, and heightened sensory perception. While recreational use of MDMA has been prevalent, recent research suggests significant therapeutic potential in treating mental health conditions like post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This thesis will explore the pharmacological effects of MDMA, its historical and cultural significance, the current state of research on its therapeutic applications, and the ongoing debate regarding its legal status.

Investigating the electrochemical profile of methamphetamine to enable fast on-site detection in forensic analysis

Methamphetamine (MA) is a synthetic psychoactive drug which is consumed both licitly and illicitly. In some countries it is prescribed for attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder, and short-term treatment of obesity. More often though, it is abused for its psychostimulant properties. Unfortunately, the spread and abuse of this synthetic drug have increased globally, being reported as the most widely consumed synthetic psychoactive drug in the world in 2019. Attempting to overcome the shortcomings of the currently used on-site methods for MA detection in suspected cargos, the present study explores the potential of electrochemical identification of MA by means of square wave voltammetry on disposable graphite screen-printed electrodes. Hence, the analytical characterization of the method was evaluated under optimal conditions exhibiting a linear range between 50 μM and 2.5 mM MA, a LOD of 16.7 μM, a LOQ of 50.0 μM and a sensitivity of 5.3 μA mM−1. Interestingly, two zones in the potential window were identified for the detection of MA, depending on its concentration in solution. Furthermore, the oxidative pathway of MA was elucidated employing liquid chromatography – mass spectrometry to understand the change in the electrochemical profile. Thereafter, the selectivity of the method towards MA in mixtures with other drugs of abuse as well as common adulterants/cutting agents was evaluated. Finally, the described method was employed for the analysis of MA in confiscated samples and compared with forensic methods, displaying its potential as a fast and easy-to-use method for on-site analysis.

Use of new and uncommon synthetic psychoactive drugs among a nationally representative sample in the United States, 2005-2017.

This study aims to examine patterns and first mentions of reported use of new or uncommon drugs across 13years, among nationally representative samples in the United States. Participants (ages ≥12) in the National Surveys on Drug Use and Health (2005-2017, N=730,418) were provided opportunities to type in names of new or uncommon drugs they had ever used that were not specifically queried. We examined self-reported use across survey years and determined years of first mentions. From 2005 to 2017, there were 2,343 type-in responses for use of 79 new or uncommon synthetic drugs, and 54 were first-ever mentions of these drugs. The majority (65.8%) of mentions were phenethylamines (e.g., 2C-x, NBOMe), which were also the plurality of new drug mentions (n=22; 40.7%). Mentions of 2C-x drugs in particular increased from 30 mentions in 2005 to 147 mentions in 2013. We estimate an upward trend in use of new or uncommon drugs between 2005 and 2017 (p<0.001). Although type-in responses on surveys are limited and underestimate prevalence of use, such responses can help inform researchers when new compounds are used. Continued surveillance of use of new and uncommon drugs is needed to inform adequate public health response.

Identifying and treating patients with synthetic psychoactive drug intoxication.

Tens of thousands of ED visits each year are related to synthetic psychoactive drug intoxication. Signs, symptoms, and treatment of toxicity with synthetic cathinones, synthetic cannabinoids, or dextromethorphan overlap greatly and can be challenging. This article describes signs and symptoms of psychoactive drug abuse and how to properly manage these symptoms.

Acute Intoxications Involving Synthetic Psychoactive Substances

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a succinic acid derivate, a substrate metabolic agent cytoflavin in patients with acute poisoning with synthetic psychoactive drugs. Materials and methods. A retrospective evaluation of effectiveness of a combined intensive care treatment protocol for 622 patients with acute narcotic poisoning (methadone and synthetic cannabinoids) was carried out. All patients were divided into two groups. The main group (112 patients, median age 38.2±12.0 years) included patients who, in addition to the basic treatment, received cytoflavin by intravenous drop infusion, 20–40 ml diluted in 400–500 ml of 10% glucose, for 5 days. Patients of the reference group (510 subjects, median age 37.6±14.1 years) received treatment according to the «classical scheme». In addition to conventional examination, all patients underwent duplex scanning of cerebral vessels, examination of changes in the cerebral blood circulation and electroencephalogram findings. The severity of somatic disorders was assessed using criteria of the Glasgow coma scale. The severity of the asthenic syndrome was assessed according to the MFI-20 scale. Results. Compared to patients who received a standard therapy, patients of the main group had a significantly more rapid recovery from coma (by 1.5-fold: 23.5±3.1 days, versus 15.1±3.0 days, respectively, P0.05); the duration of psychotic disorders was shorter (by 1.8-fold: 15.5±4.2 hours vs 8.3±2.5 hours., respectively, P0.05), and the intensity of asthenic syndrome (by 2.8-fold: 64.1±3.3 rel. units vs 23.0±4,9 rel. units, respectively, P0.05) was also lower. Conclusion. Inclusion of cytoflavin in a protocol of a complex treatment of patients with synthetic drugs poisoning increased the effectiveness of the therapy. Data demonstrate that inclusion of the drug can be recommended for treatment of acute synthetic narcotic poisoning.

The Arrest and Synthetic Novel Psychoactive Drug Relationship

Novel psychoactive drugs (NPDs), an emerging class of dangerous substances, generally mimic the actions of commonly abused substances such as marijuana, stimulants, hallucinogens, and opiates, but are formulated, marketed, and used either to sidestep legal restrictions or to avoid positive drug screens. Synthetic cannabinoids such as Spice and K2 along with synthetic stimulants often referred to as “bath salts” have recently entered U.S. markets. The current study explores the relationship between being arrested and using NPDs per self-report survey data obtained from 2,349 students at a large university in the Southeastern United States. Respondents indicated whether they had used synthetic psychoactive drugs, reported demographic characteristics, and whether they had been arrested for a number of offenses. Results from logistic regression and propensity score matching models indicate that those who have been arrested are also more likely to use NPDs.

Identification of in vitro metabolites of ethylphenidate by liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Ethylphenidate is a new potent synthetic psychoactive drug, structurally related to methylphenidate. Using human liver microsomes and cytosol, we have investigated for the first time the Phase-I and Phase-II in vitro metabolism of ethylphenidate. The structure of the metabolites was elucidated by hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Overall, seven Phase-I, but no Phase-II metabolites were detected. Ethylphenidate underwent hydroxylation forming two primary mono-hydroxylated metabolites and, subsequently, dehydration and ring opening with an additional hydroxylation, forming secondary metabolites. The involvement of different human cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes in the formation of ethylphenidate metabolites was investigated using a panel of human recombinant CYPs (rCYPs). rCYP2C19 was the most active recombinant enzyme involved in the formation of all seven ethylphenidate metabolites detected, although other rCYPs (rCYP1A2, rCYP2B6, rCYPC9, rCYP2D6, and rCYP3A4, but not rCYP2E1) played a role in the metabolism of ethylphenidate. All metabolites identified in the present study can be considered as potential specific biomarkers of ethylphenidate in toxicological studies. Additionally, ritalinic acid and methylphenidate were formed by non-enzymatic hydrolysis and trans-esterification, and, therefore, they cannot be considered as (oxidative) metabolites of ethylphenidate. The presence of methylphenidate and ritalinic acid cannot be exclusively associated to the use of ethylphenidate, since methylphenidate is a drug itself and ritanilic acid can be formed from both ethylphenidate and methylphenidate.

In vitro characterization of potential CYP- and UGT-derived metabolites of the psychoactive drug 25B-NBOMe using LC-high resolution MS.

One of the main challenges posed by the emergence of new psychoactive substances is their identification in human biological samples. Trying to detect the parent drug could lead to false-negative results when the delay between consumption and sampling has been too long. The identification of their metabolites could then improve their detection window in biological matrices. Oxidative metabolism by cytochromes P450 and glucuronidation are two major detoxification pathways in humans. In order to characterize possible CYP- and UGT-dependent metabolites of the 2-(4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxy-phenyl)-N-[(2-methoxyphenyl)methyl]ethanamine (25B-NBOMe), a synthetic psychoactive drug, analyses of human liver microsome (HLM) incubates were performed using an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography system coupled with a quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry detector (UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS). On-line analyses were performed using a Waters OASIS HLB column (30 x 2.1 mm, 20 µm) for the automatic sample loading and a Waters ACQUITY HSS C18 column (150 x 2 mm, 1.8 µm) for the chromatographic separation. Twenty-one metabolites, consisting of 12 CYP-derived and 9 UGT-derived metabolites, were identified. O-Desmethyl metabolites were the most abundant compounds after the phase I process, which appears to be in accordance with data from previously published NBOMe-intoxication case reports. Although other important metabolic transformations, such as sulfation, acetylation, methylation or glutathione conjugation, were not studied and artefactual metabolites might have been produced during the HLM incubation process, the record of all the metabolite MS spectra in our library should enable us to characterize relevant metabolites of 25B-NBOMe and allow us to detect 25B-MBOMe users.

Fingerprinting of 3, 4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine Markers by Desorption/Ionization on Porous Silicon

Desorption/ionization on porous silicon (DIOS) is a method which extends the application range of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. This technique eliminates matrix background in the low mass range; DIOS is especially advantageous in research on small organic molecules and their metabolites in biological samples. DIOS mass spectrometry was applied for 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, (MDMA, Ecstasy) impurities identification. Trace components profiling enables the identification of by-products characteristics for the synthesis route of MDMA. Ecstasy, a synthetic psychoactive drug, is highly popular among young people, and often used as a recreational drug, most commonly used during disco parties. MDMA enhances feeling of euphoria by increasing the level of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine, and causes acute behavioral and psychological effects. MDMA is almost exclusively produced illegally, primarily in Western Europe. The new method for MDMA impurities profiling has been developed to trace the origin of MDMA pills. For comparison and classification of the impurity profiles, the principal components analysis was used.

The nonmedical use of amphetamines among the college age group: recent research concerning epidemiology and toxicity.

Abstract Amphetamines play a significant role in nontherapeutic drug use by college students. These synthetic psychoactive drugs are central-nervous-system stimulants that act in ways similar to longer acting versions of cocaine. Nonmedical involvement of college students with these drugs first occurred in 1936, but they did not become a significant part of the college drug scene until the 1960s. Their use gradually increased throughout the 1960s, remained somewhat level during the mid-1970s, and began to increase again during the 1980s. In complex intellectual functioning, amphetamines impair accuracy and lessen efficient performance. In athletics, they may increase endurance and enhance performance but they present risks that far outweigh any advantage the athlete may attain. Fatalities have been reported in athletes taking moderate doses under conditions of extreme exertion. Considerable data implicate amphetamines in producing serious psychological and biological adverse effects. Long-term use leads t...