Sweet Preference Research Articles

Leptin Gene and Leptin Receptor Gene Polymorphisms Are Associated with Sweet Preference and Obesity

Leptin is an adipocyte-secreted hormone that regulates food intake and body weight, and that was recently reported to suppress sweet sensitivity in an animal model. We investigated the associations among sweet preference, obesity, and polymorphisms of the leptin gene (LEP) or leptin receptor gene (LEPR). A total of 3,653 residents randomly selected from among the citizens of Suita City, Osaka, Japan were enlisted as subjects, in whom we investigated sweet preference, clinical characteristics, including obesity and serum leptin level, and the polymorphisms of LEP and LEPR (G-2548A and A19G for LEP; R109K, R223Q, and rs3790439 for LEPR). We determined the associations among the parameters using logistic regression analysis, in order to consider potential confounding factors for sweet preference and/or obesity. The LEP A19G and LEPR R109K polymorphisms were associated with sweet preference, whereas the serum leptin level was not. Further, the LEPR 109KK genotype was found to be associated with obesity along with sweet preference. In conclusion, our results are the first to show associations of LEP and LEPR polymorphisms with sweet preference, and may provide useful information for diagnosis and treatment of lifestyle-related diseases.

Sweet Preference, Obesity and Genetic Polymorphism of Leptin and the Leptin Receptor

Sweet Preference, Obesity and Genetic Polymorphism of Leptin and the Leptin Receptor

Characterising the flavour phenotypes of almond (Prunus dulcis Mill.) kernels

SummaryTo determine the chemical basis of almond flavour phenotypes, non-bitter, semi-bitter, and bitter kernels from 101 almond trees, all derived from a common maternal parent, were evaluated for flavour using three approaches: (1) sensory analysis (i.e., by taste); (2) amygdalin quantitation (using High Performance Liquid Chromatography); and (3) non-targeted analysis of volatile metabolites released on maceration (by Solid Phase Micro-Extraction, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, and Chemical Sensor). Tasting identified three categories of flavour (non-bitter, semi-bitter, and bitter) that were also distinguishable on the basis of chemical analyses, and by a chemical sensor using principal component analysis. Highly significant correlations were found between amygdalin content and the taste panel’s score for ‘marzipan’, and also between the taste panel’s scores for sweet and overall taste preference. Non-targeted metabolite analysis identified benzyl alcohol and 2,3-butanediol as potentially important flavour components of almond, for the first time.

The Effect of Frequency of Consumption of Artificial Sweeteners on Sweetness Liking by Women

Research into sweetness perception and preference thus far has demonstrated that sweetness preference is related not to the total sugar consumed by an individual but the amount of refined sugar ingested. Research has yet to be conducted, however, to determine whether a diet high in artificial sweeteners contributes to sweetness liking and preference with the same result as a diet high in sugar. The purpose of this research was to determine if such a relationship exists with regard to diets high in artificially sweetened beverages. Seventy-one female participants were recruited and screened for sweetener consumption in beverages. Sixty-four of these individuals were selected for sensory testing. All participants evaluated orange juice samples (ranging from 0% added sucrose to 20% added sucrose) for liking of sweetness using a 9-point hedonic scale. Based on screening survey data, participants were categorized according to sweetener consumption group (artificial sweetener consumers and natural sweetener consumers) and by overall sweetened beverage intake (low or high, regardless of sweetener type normally consumed). Sensory data were analyzed to compare sweetness liking in each of these groups. Significant differences in liking were observed, with individuals in the high sweetened beverage intake group preferring sweeter orange juice than those in the low-intake group. Categorization by sweetener type resulted in no significant differences between the groups, indicating that regardless of the type of sweetener consumed in a beverage, liking of sweetness will be influenced in the same manner.

Effects of Cigarette Smoking and Family History of Alcoholism on Sweet Taste Perception and Food Cravings in Women

Despite popular beliefs that smoking affects the sensitivity and liking of sweet-tasting foods and beverages, few psychophysical studies have examined this phenomenon and none have taken into account the individual's family history of alcoholism (FH+), a predictor of heightened sweet preferences. A within- and between-subjects study was conducted to determine the effect of both cigarette smoking and an acute exposure to nicotine on sweet taste sensitivity and preferences in women. Two groups were studied on 2 days separated by 1 week: women who were current smokers (n = 27, 18 were FH+) and those who never smoked in their lifetime (n = 22, 9 were FH+). Current smokers smoked nicotine-containing cigarettes during 1 test session and nicotine-free cigarettes during the other. The procedures were identical during both test sessions for the group of never smokers, with the exception that they did not smoke. Two-alternative staircase methods and forced-choice tracking procedures were used to assess sucrose thresholds and preferences, respectively, during both test session. Standardized questionnaires were administered to assess food cravings as well as smoking and alcohol usage and dependence. The Family Interview for Genetic Studies was used to detect alcoholism according to the DSM III criteria for family members up to second-degree relatives. Acute exposure to nicotine did not affect sucrose detection thresholds or preferences, but smokers had significantly higher sucrose detection thresholds than never smokers. The greater the smoking dose in pack-years, the lower the sucrose sensitivity. Regardless of smoking status, women who were FH+ preferred significantly higher sucrose concentrations and craved sweets more often than women who were not. Both smoking and having a family history of alcoholism had differential effects on sweet taste. Smoking was associated with decreased sweet taste sensitivity whereas having a family history of alcoholism was associated with heightened sweet preferences. These findings suggests that future research on the effects of smoking on food habits and cravings should take into account family history of alcoholism given its association with sweet liking and the increased likelihood to develop a tobacco disorder.

Sex Differences in Preferences for Coffee Sweetness among Japanese Students

The purpose of the present study was to examine sex differences in preferences for coffee sweetness. The participants were 59 Japanese undergraduate students. Men preferred sweeter coffee than women, while both men and women showed almost the same preference for acidic beverage sweetness. The sex difference in preferences for coffee sweetness may be related to coffee-drinking habits.

Preference for Sweet Foods and Higher Body Mass Index in Patients Being Treated in Long-Term Methadone Maintenance

Opiate use has been associated with preference for sweets in both humans and animals. In 2002, the food preferences and eating habits of non-institutionalized patients in methadone treatment and controls were measured and compared. Questionnaires were administered to 14 patients and 14 controls with similar demographic characteristics (there were 19 women and 9 men ranging in age from 19 to 59 years). The patients reported higher consumption of sweets, higher eagerness to consume sweet foods, and a wish to consume quantities larger than that desired by controls. Patients had a significantly higher body mass than controls. The study's limitations are noted. These findings suggest a link between methadone and a desire for calorically dense foods. A study of eating behavior is warranted.

Sensory Characteristics, Composition, and Nutraceutical Content of Juice fromVitis rotundifolia(Muscadine) Cultivars

Eight <i>Vitis rotundifolia</i> (muscadine) cultivars, including five black cultivars (Black Beauty, Ison, Nesbitt, Southern Home, and Supreme) and three bronze cultivars (Carlos, Granny Val, and Summit), yielded 58 to 74 kg/vine. Juice yields were 473 to 551 L/t with soluble solids (12.6 to 14.6%), pH (3.09 to 3.42), total phenolics (179 to 373 mg/L), and total anthocyanins (2.0 to 104 mg/L). Consumers and a trained descriptive panel evaluated the juices plus two commercial juices. Consumers rated Black Beauty, Granny Val, Ison, Southern Home, and Summit juices highest for overall liking. The descriptive panel created a sensory lexicon with major attributes identified as sweet, sour, cooked muscadine, cooked grape, and astringent. Correlation between consumer and descriptive data indicated overall liking correlated positively to sweetness and caramelized and correlated negatively to sour and green unripe. Consumers showed a preference for juice sweetness with soluble solids ≈ 14% and soluble solids/acid ratios of 26 to 31. The muscadine cultivars produced quality juices with potential nutraceutical impact to expand marketing of muscadine products.

Variation in oral sensation: implications for diet and health

Important advances in our understanding of how taste, smell and somatosensation contribute to oral sensation are reviewed and the nutritional and health implications associated with variation in oral sensation are discussed. Oral sensation is a central integration of taste (salty, sweet, sour, bitter, umami), retronasal olfaction (i.e. smelling through the mouth), and somatosensation (touch, temperature, pain) by the orbitofrontal cortex. There is normal variation in oral sensation across individuals, ranging from those living in a neon orosensory world to those living in a pastel world. Historically, study of this variation revolved around genetically mediated bitterness of phenylthiocarbamide or propylthiouracil, but now it encompasses additional phenotypes (e.g. fungiform papillae number, bitterness of quinine) and emerging receptor genotypes. Aging and exposure to pathogens interact with genetics to further influence oral sensation. Orosensory variation is associated with differences in preference for high-fat foods, sweets, vegetables, and alcoholic beverages. Emerging data suggest this variation influences intake of these foods/beverages and thus diet-related chronic diseases (cardiovascular diseases, certain cancers, obesity). Oral sensation varies with genetics and gene-environment interactions. As this variation explains some of the differences in what we like/dislike to eat, attempts to reduce disease risk through diet should consider food/beverage preference to promote health and food enjoyment.

Food Preference Questionnaire as a Screening Tool for Assessing Dietary Risk of Cardiovascular Disease within Health Risk Appraisals

Objective Nutrition components of health risk appraisals (HRAs) aim to rapidly and accurately assess dietary behaviors that increase disease risk. Because cognitive research suggests that recalling food likes/dislikes may be simpler and more accurate than recalling intake, we tested whether a preference measure was predictive of cardiovascular disease risk factors within an HRA. Methods HRA participants (422 primarily non-Hispanic white men, mean age 46±10 years) from a manufacturing company completed surveys to assess fat and sweet food/beverage preference; frequency of consuming fat and sweet foods/beverages, alcoholic beverages, fiber-rich foods (whole grains, fruits, and vegetables); and physical activity. Per measured risk factors, 34% had central obesity (waist circumference ≥102 cm), 32% had hypertension (≥140 and/or ≥90 mm Hg), 52% had prehypertension (≥120 to 139 and/or ≥80 to 89 mm Hg), and 52% had an elevated total cholesterol level (≥200 mg/dL [5.2 mmol/L]). Statistical Analyses Multiple linear regression models explaining variability in waist circumference, blood pressure, and serum lipids were tested. Results Although preference and intake pairs for fat and sweets were significantly correlated, intake of fat and sweets failed to associate significantly with any risk factor. Significant variance in waist circumference was explained by age, fat preference, fiber intake, and physical activity. Those with greater circumferences liked fat more, consumed less fiber, and exercised less. Waist circumference in turn contributed significantly to models predicting serum lipid levels and blood pressure. Alcohol intake explained variability in serum lipid levels—higher intakes were associated with higher high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. The models predicting risk were generally more explanatory in younger (<50 years) than in older men. Conclusions Including a preference measure within an HRA appears to enhance cardiovascular disease risk factor assessment. Fat preference, intake of fiber-rich foods, and alcohol proved the best dietary determinants of cardiovascular disease risk factors.

Effect of Nutritional Intake on the Change in Sweetness Preference from a Long Run in Hot Conditions

The relationship between sweetness preference and habitual nutrient intake, and the effect of a 14, 000-m run in heat on the sweetness threshold and sweetness preference of male collegiate runners are examined.Twenty-six male runners completed sweetness threshold and sweetness preference tests before and immediately after the run. Although the individual sweetness threshold was unchanged by the run, there was a large variation in the change in sweetness preference among the runners.Based on the difference in sweetness preference before and after the run, the subjects were divided into three groups: increased (group I; n=11), unchanged (group II; n=9) and decreased (group III; n=6). The levels of the sweetness threshold before and after running were unchanged among the three groups, but the sweetness preference after running was significantly higher in group I than in group III. The group I runners consumed significantly less carbohydrate/kg of body weight and micronutrients than the group III runners.Habitual nutrient intake might therefore be closely implicated in the change in sweetness preference due to running.

Lowest neonatal serum sodium predicts sodium intake in low birth weight children

Forty-one children aged 10.5 +/- 0.2 years (range, 8.0-15.0 yr), born with low birth weight of 1,218.2 +/- 36.6 g (range, 765-1,580 g) were selected from hospital archives on the basis of whether they had received neonatal diuretic treatment or as healthy matched controls. The children were tested for salt appetite and sweet preference, including rating of preferred concentration of salt in tomato soup (and sugar in tea), ratings of oral spray (NaCl and sucrose solutions), intake of salt or sweet snack items, and a food-seasoning, liking, and dietary questionnaire. Results showed that sodium appetite was not related to neonatal diuretic treatment, birth weight, or gestational age. However, there was a robust inverse correlation (r = -0.445, P < 0.005) between reported dietary sodium intake and the neonatal lowest serum sodium level (NLS) recorded for each child as an index of sodium loss. The relationship of NLS and dietary sodium intake was found in both boys and girls and in both Arab and Jewish children, despite marked ethnic differences in dietary sources of sodium. Hence, low NLS predicts increased intake of dietary sodium in low birth weight children some 8-15 yr later. Taken together with other recent evidence, it is now clear that perinatal sodium loss, from a variety of causes, is a consistent and significant contributor to long-term sodium intake.

Behavioral factors to include in guidelines for lifelong oral healthiness: an observational study in Japanese adults.

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to determine which behavioral factors to include in guidelines for the Japanese public to achieve an acceptable level of oral healthiness. The objective was to determine the relationship between oral health related behaviors and symptoms related to oral disease and tooth loss in a Japanese adult community.MethodsOral health status and lifestyle were investigated in 777 people aged 20 years and older (390 men and 387 women). Subjects were asked to complete a postal questionnaire concerning past diet and lifestyle. The completed questionnaires were collected when they had health examinations. The 15 questions included their preference for sweets, how many between-meal snacks they usually had per day, smoking and drinking habits, presence of oral symptoms, and attitudes towards dental visits. Participants were asked about their behaviors at different stages of their life. The oral health examinations included examination of the oral cavity and teeth performed by dentists using WHO criteria. Odds ratios were calculated for all subjects, all 10 year age groups, and for subjects 30 years or older, 40 years or older, 50 years or older, and 60 years or older.ResultsFrequency of tooth brushing (OR = 3.98), having your own toothbrush (OR = 2.11), smoking (OR = 2.71) and bleeding gums (OR = 2.03) were significantly associated with number of retained teeth in males. Frequency of between-meal snacks was strongly associated with number of retained teeth in females (OR = 4.67). Having some hobbies (OR = 2.97), having a family dentist (OR = 2.34) and consulting a dentist as soon as symptoms occurred (OR = 1.74) were significantly associated with number of retained teeth in females. Factors that were significantly associated with tooth loss in both males and females included alcohol consumption (OR = 11.96, males, OR = 3.83, females), swollen gums (OR = 1.93, males, OR = 3.04, females) and toothache (OR = 3.39, males, OR = 3.52, females).ConclusionBehavioral factors that were associated with tooth retention were frequency of eating snacks between meals, tooth brushing frequency, having one's own toothbrush, smoking and drinking habits, having hobbies, having a family dentist and when they had dental treatment. Clinical factors included bleeding gums, swollen gums, and toothache.

Increased Ethanol Resistance and Consumption in Eps8 Knockout Mice Correlates with Altered Actin Dynamics

Dynamic modulation of the actin cytoskeleton is critical for synaptic plasticity, abnormalities of which are thought to contribute to mental illness and addiction. Here we report that mice lacking Eps8, a regulator of actin dynamics, are resistant to some acute intoxicating effects of ethanol and show increased ethanol consumption. In the brain, the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor is a major target of ethanol. We show that Eps8 is localized to postsynaptic structures and is part of the NMDA receptor complex. Moreover, in Eps8 null mice, NMDA receptor currents and their sensitivity to inhibition by ethanol are abnormal. In addition, Eps8 null neurons are resistant to the actin-remodeling activities of NMDA and ethanol. We propose that proper regulation of the actin cytoskeleton is a key determinant of cellular and behavioral responses to ethanol.

Heritability estimates for dental caries and sucrose sweetness preference

The aim of this study was to determine heritability estimates for dental caries traits and sucrose sweetness preference. Participants included 115 pairs of twins 4-7-years-old. Caries exams followed NIDCR criteria where the severity of the lesion was also determined. Twins ranked their preference for five concentrations of sucrose/grape juice solutions (0.15-1.17M) with a Face Scale. Variables submitted to analysis: (1) surface-based caries prevalence rate (SBCPR); (2) lesion severity index (LSI); (3) sucrose sweetness preference score (SSPS). Heritability analyses were performed with the SOLAR software package. Heritability estimates adjusted for age and gender were: SBCPR-h(2)=64.6 (p<.00001), LSI-h(2)=61.7 (p<.00001) and SSPS-h(2)=55.2 (p<.00001). Treating SPSS as a covariate in the SBCPR and LSI models did not alter heritability estimates. These results suggest that variation in dental caries traits and sucrose sweetness preference have a significant genetic contribution that is mediated independently.

Sweet and fat taste preference in obesity have different associations with personality and eating behavior

The aim of this study was to test associations between self-reported attitudes of sweet and fat taste preferences and psychological constructs of eating behavior and personality in obesity. Sixty obese patients were included. The Three Factor Eating Questionnaire was used for the assessment of psychological constructs of eating behavior, and the Swedish universities Scales of Personality was used for measuring personality traits. A strong sweet taste preference was associated with more neurotic personality traits ( P = .003), in particular lack of assertiveness ( P = .001) and embitterment ( P = .002). Strong fat taste preference was rather related to lower levels of the eating characteristic cognitive restraint ( P = .017), implying less attempts to restrict and control food intake. Whereas strong sweet taste preference was linked to a personality style in obesity, strong fat preference could be more an aspect of eating behavior. A psychobiological stress model is discussed in relation to the results on sweet preference and hampered personality functioning.

Endocrine Disruption and Flame-Retardant Chemicals: PBDE-99 Effects on Rat Sexual Development

Chemical flame retardants containing polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have attracted growing attention in recent years from toxicologists. Unlike their chemical cousins, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), environmental levels of PBDE compounds are increasing, as are concentrations found in human breast milk. This is of concern because of the potential that PBDEs may cause developmental toxicity due to endocrine-modulating effects, as has previously been documented with dioxins and PCBs. Results of a new German study examining developmental exposure in rats to a commonly used and environmentally abundant PBDE compound, PBDE-99, lend support to suspicions that PBDEs can have detrimental effects on sexual development in the offspring of exposed mothers [EHP 114:194–201]. The researchers examined sexual development end points—circulating sexual steroid concentrations, reproductive organ development, and sexually dimorphic behavior—that have been shown in similar rodent experiments to change following exposure to a mixture of PCBs reconstituted according to the congener pattern found in human breast milk. In the current study, weight-matched groups of dams received daily subcutaneous injections of PBDE-99 from gestational days 10 through 18 at doses of 1 or 10 milligrams per kilogram body weight (mg/kg). For comparison, another group was dosed with 30 mg/kg of the PCB mixture Aroclor 1254 (A1254). In PBDE-exposed male offspring, pronounced decreases in circulating sex steroids (estradiol, testosterone) were seen both at weaning and in adulthood. Anogenital distance, an androgen-dependent marker of sexual development, was also reduced in the male offspring. The males further displayed a dose-dependent increased preference for sweets, which is a sexually dimorphic behavior in rodents—this finding indicates feminization in the males. A slight acceleration in onset of puberty was noted in the low-dose group. The PBDE-exposed females had less severe effects. Onset of puberty was mildly delayed in the high-dose group. Also, the number of primordial/primary (rudimentary) ovarian follicles was reduced in the low-dose group, with a more pronounced decline in secondary (more developed) follicles within the high-dose group. These results could indicate an impaired reproductive life span, in that ovarian follicles are a key indicator of ovarian health. The females also had an insignificant increase in sweet preference. The researchers found no effect on sweet preference in male or female offspring exposed to the PCB mixture, but in the females they did see a significant increase in the number of tertiary (still larger, more developed) follicles. The exposure also adversely affected steroid concentrations in males and sexual development in both sexes. Thus, it appears that the pattern of endocrine-disruptive effects differs for PBDE-99 and A1254, which may be due to the higher content of dioxin-like compounds in the PCB mixture. The scientists also examined organ weights as an indicator of overall development in the rodents. They found that pituitary gland weights were slightly decreased in males in the PBDE-99 high-dose group at weaning, while they were increased in females in the low-dose group. The authors speculate that these effects may indicate a biphasic response to PBDE-99, and suggest that the phenomenon should be studied further in future research. Results also included a marked dose-dependent decrease in thyroid gland weight in adult rats of both sexes exposed to either PBDE-99 or A1254. This study adds to a growing body of literature indicating that chemical flame retardants are endocrine-disrupting compounds with the potential to profoundly affect sexual development and sexually dimorphic behaviors. The fact that several effects were seen in adulthood, long after termination of the exposure, indicates that the rats’ gestational exposure caused permanent physiologic damage. With increases in human body burden and environmental levels, and with the compounds’ apparent persistence in both venues, it is safe to assume that PBDEs will be the focus of more urgent research activity.

Prochloraz: an imidazole fungicide with multiple mechanisms of action

Prochloraz is an imidazole fungicide that is widely used in Europe, Australia, Asia and South America within gardening and agriculture. Screening studies have shown that prochloraz elicits multiple mechanisms of action in vitro, as it antagonizes the androgen and the oestrogen receptor, agonizes the Ah receptor and inhibits aromatase activity. In vivo prochloraz acts as an antiandrogen in the Hershberger assay by reducing weights of reproductive organs, affecting androgen-regulated gene expressions in the prostate and increasing luteinizing hormone levels. In order to investigate the developmental effects of prochloraz, pregnant Wistar dams were dosed perinatally with 30 mg/kg prochloraz. Results showed that prochloraz significantly reduced plasma and testicular testosterone levels in gestational day 21 male foetuses, whereas testicular progesterone was increased. Gestational length was increased by prochloraz. In male pups a significant increase in nipple retention was found, and the weight of the bulbourethral glands was decreased. Behavioural studies showed that the activity level and sweet preference of adult males were significantly increased, indicating that exposure during gestation and lactation causes permanent effects in adulthood. Overall, these results indicate that prochloraz feminizes the male offspring after perinatal exposure, and that these effects are due, at least in part, to diminished fetal steroidogenesis. Thus, a novel endocrine disruptor has been identified that is mechanistically interesting as it elicits dual mechanisms of action and acts as an antiandrogen both by blocking the androgen receptor and by inhibiting fetal steroidogenesis. That a fungicide with such effects is so widely used is a cause for concern, and its use should be reduced, thereby minimizing the risk of human exposure.

Sucrose-induced analgesia is related to sweet preferences in children but not adults

The present study tested the hypothesis that the efficacy of sucrose in reducing pain during the Cold Pressor Test (CPT) was related to its hedonic value. To this aim, we determined the most preferred level of sucrose and the analgesic properties of 24% w/v sucrose during the CPT in 242, 5- to 10-year-old children and their mothers. Outcome measures included pain thresholds (the time at which discomfort was first indicated) and pain tolerance (the length of time the hand was kept in the cold water bath). Although children, as a group, preferred significantly higher sucrose concentrations than adults, there were individual differences that allowed us to group them on the basis of those who preferred sucrose concentrations below that used in the CPT (24% w/v) and those who preferred levels ≥24% w/v sucrose. Regardless of such groupings, sucrose was not an effective analgesic in adult women. Unlike adults, the more children liked sucrose, the better its efficacy as an analgesic. That is, children who preferred ≥24%w/v sucrose exhibited an increased latency to report pain and tolerated pain for significantly longer periods of time when sucrose was held in their mouths relative to water. This effect was more pronounced among normal weight when compared to overweight/at risk for overweight children. The role that dietary habits and individual differences contribute to the preferences for sweet taste and its physiological consequences in children is an important area for future research.

Sweet preference predicts mood altering effect of and impaired control over eating sweet foods

The purpose of the present study was to examine association between hedonic response to sweet taste and a mood altering effect associated with eating sweet foods and impaired control over eating sweets. Participants ( n = 163, 39% males) rated a series of sucrose solutions for intensity of sweetness and palatability and completed a newly developed 12-item Sweet Taste Questionnaire (STQ). It was shown that STQ identifies two factors in the individual's attitude towards sweet foods: sensitivity to the mood altering effect of sweets and impaired control over eating sweet foods. Individuals preferring the taste of the strongest offered sucrose concentration reported a stronger mood altering effect associated with eating of sweet foods and were more likely to have an impaired control over eating sweets than the rest of the group. Women generally had higher scores on both factors compared to men. The results of the present study support the hypothesis that hedonic response to sweet taste is associated with elevated sensitivity to mood altering effects of sweet foods and impaired control over eating sweets.