Suitability Of Groundwater Research Articles

Coastal Aquifer Contamination and Geochemical Processes Evaluation in Tugela Catchment, South Africa—Geochemical and Statistical Approaches

Assessment of groundwater quality, contamination sources and geochemical processes in the coastal aquifer of Tugela Catchment, South Africa were carried out by the geochemical and statistical approach using major ion chemistry of 36 groundwater samples. Results suggest that the spatial distribution pattern of EC, TDS, Na, Mg, Cl and SO4 are homogenous and elevated concentrations are observed in the wells in the coastal region and few wells near the Tugela River. Wells located far from the coast are enriched by Ca, HCO3 and CO3. Durov diagrams, Gibbs plots, ionic ratios, chloro alkaline indices (CAI1 and CAI2) and correlation analysis imply that groundwater chemistry in the coastal aquifer of Tugela Catchment is regulated by the ion exchange, mineral dissolution, saline sources, and wastewater infiltration from domestic sewage; septic tank leakage and irrigation return flow. Principle component analysis also ensured the role of saline and anthropogenic sources and carbonates dissolution on water chemistry. Spatial distributions of factor score also justify the above predictions. Groundwater suitability assessment indicates that around 80% and 90% of wells exceeded the drinking water standards recommended by the WHO and South African drinking water standards (SAWQG), respectively. Based on SAR, RSC, PI, and MH classifications, most of the wells are suitable for irrigation in the study region. USSL classification suggests that groundwater is suitable for coarse-textured soils and salt-tolerant crops. The study recommends that a proper management plan is required to protect this coastal aquifer efficiently.

Detection and Evaluation of Groundwater in Siwa Oasis, Egypt Using Hydrogeochemical and Remote Sensing Data Analysis.

The present study aims to detect and evaluate the groundwater quality in Siwa Oasis using chemical and remote sensing data analysis. To carry out this goal, the data of Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) images have been used to discriminate the lithological rock units. ALOS radar remote sensing data with spatial resolution 12.5 m has been used to emphasize the predominant fault trends as well as detection of the buried structures. The chemical analysis of 39 groundwater samples was used to evaluate the suitability of groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes by comparing those parameters with World Health Organization standards. Seventy-seven percent of the collected water samples are unsuitable for drinking. About 82% of the studied water samples are unsuitable for the industry. According to salinity index, SAR, Na%, magnesium hazard and Kelley ratio, most of the collected groundwater samples are considered unsuitable for irrigation purposes.

Impact of flash flood recharge on groundwater quality and its suitability in the Wadi Baysh Basin, Western Saudi Arabia: an integrated approach

An integrated approach was used to evaluate the impact of flash flood recharge on groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking, irrigation, livestock and poultry uses in the Wadi Baysh Basin, Western Saudi Arabia. Analyses of 182 groundwater samples, collected from the study area before and after a flash flood (FF) event, show that the average concentrations of TDS, Mg, Na, Cl, NO3 and EC decreased significantly after the event. The major water types (mixed CaMgCl, NaCl and CaCl) indicate that the infiltration of surface water from FF recharge has a great influence on groundwater chemistry. Drinking water suitability maps, created using WHO standards, indicate that wells located in the upstream region are suitable for drinking despite their high TDS and total hardness (TH) values. Groundwater in the coastal region is unsuitable due to its high salinity, high TH and high concentrations of major ions. The suitability of groundwater for irrigational use was assessed using salinity, sodium adsorption ratio, bicarbonate hazard, residual sodium carbonate, Kelly’s ratio, magnesium hazard, sodium percentage and permeability index values, which indicated that groundwater in the study region is suitable for most soils and crops. After FF, groundwater quality is improved by dilution, especially in the downstream region. USSL classification shows that the majority of the water samples are in the C3S1, C4S2, and C3S2 classes and are therefore suitable for the irrigation of salt-tolerant crops. Irrigational suitability maps suggest that wells in the upstream region are suitable for irrigation, whereas wells located near to the coast are unfit for irrigation. This study implies that construction of check dams in the dry valleys (wadies) may improve the groundwater quality in the area.

Assessment of landfills vulnerability on the groundwater quality located near floodplain of the perennial river and simulation of contaminant transport

This investigation was carried out with the objective to understand the impacts of landfill leachate on groundwater quality. This study also explained the movement of trace metals in groundwater by using Visual MODFLOW/MT3D. It also delineates the various factors controlling the suitability of groundwater for domestic, agriculture and drinking purpose. The statistical assessment shows ~ 60.09% groundwater are in good condition, ~ 35.38% in poor condition and 4.53% in very poor condition. The spatial distributions of water quality index (LWQI) around landfills indicate landfills are in depleted condition. Hydrogeochemical classification indicates ~ 90.91% groundwater shows Ca–Na water-type cation facies and Cl− water-type anion facies. While 9.09% groundwater shows Ca–Na water-type cation facies and Cl−–SO42−–HCO3− anion hydrogeochemical facies. The mineral equilibrium diagram of groundwater has revealed that it is in equilibrium with silicate minerals and favors kaolinite formation. The saturation index indicates chrysotile (Mg3Si2O5(OH)4) (2.84), dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) (0.45), ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) (1.97–3.58), goethite (FeOOH) (7.86–9.47), hematite (Fe2O3) (17.73–20.95), hydroxyapatite (Ca5(PO4)3OH) (2.38–4.62), jarosite-K (KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6) (0.22–1.92), cerussite (PbCO3) (0.39), vivianite (Fe3(PO4)2·8H2O) (0.39) and willemite (Zn2SiO4) (0.35) are reactive mineral in groundwater aquifer of study area. The seasonal and temporal variation indicates anthropogenic influence. The calibration and validation of model show > 90% models correct with 95% confidence. The contaminant transport simulated in groundwater aquifer with the high accuracy (estimated standard error 0.049 m) for the large area (~ 300 km2). The trends of contour lines of trace metals concentration indicate; it will contaminate study area within few years of its release through the landfill.

Resistivity-Chemistry Integrated Approaches for Investigating Groundwater Salinity of Water Supply and Agricultural Activity at Island Coastal Area

Groundwater suitability for water supply and agriculture in an island coastal area may easily be influenced by seawater intrusion. The aim of this study was to investigate seawater intrusion to the suitability of the groundwater for water supply and oil palm cultivation on Carey Island in Malaysia. This is the first study that used integrated method of geo-electrical resistivity and hydrogeochemical methods to investigate seawater intrusion to the suitability of groundwater for water supply and oil palm cultivation at two different surface elevation and land cover. The relationship between earth resistivity, total dissolved solids and earth conductivity was derived with water type classifications and crop suitability classification according to salinity, used to identify water types and also oil palm tolerance to salinity. Results from the contour resistivity and conductivity maps showed that the area facing severe coastal erosion (east area) exhibited unsuitable groundwater condition for water supply and oil palm at the unconfined aquifer thickness of 7.8 m and 14.1 m, respectively. Comparing to the area that are still intact with mangrove (west area), at the same depth, groundwater condition exhibits suitable usage for both socioeconomic activities. Different characteristics of surface elevation and land cover are paramount factors influencing saltwater distribution at the west and east area. By the end of the twenty-first century there will no longer be suitable water for supply and oil palm plantation based on the local sea-level rise prediction and Ghyben–Herzberg assumption (sharp interface), focusing on the severe erosion area of the study site.

Physical resources assessment in a semi-arid watershed: An integrated methodology for sustainable land use planning

The study demonstrates the application of geospatial technologies to evaluate physical resources of semi-arid watersheds and presents a comprehensive methodology applicable elsewhere. The selected Andipatti watershed, located in Theni district in the State of Tamil Nadu (India), is known for agricultural activities; however, haphazard planning, management practices and inadequate investments result in land and water resource degradation. Since most of the agricultural lands in developing countries are similar to these conditions, the present study is attempted as a case to develop a framework to assess the land and water resources potential, utilisation level and land suitability for agriculture; and to evolve better management strategies. The physical characteristics of the watershed were studied based on in-situ, remotely sensed and secondary data sources. Thematic layers were generated with the combination of remote sensing, image processing and GIS techniques. In order to characterize and quantify the watershed based on soil erosion and surface runoff rates, the revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) and natural resources conservation services curve number (NRCS-CN) were utilized. Data on water levels and geochemistry of water samples, collected from 36 dug wells were also utilized for this study. Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and electrical conductivity, as formulated by the US Salinity Laboratory (USSL) were utilized to examine the suitability of groundwater for irrigation purpose. The storie index has been used to assess the productivity of land using profile and textural characteristics of the soil. Keeping Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) guidelines as a reference, as many as 727 homogenous micro-land units were prepared. The physical land qualities and characteristics of each land unit were compared with the requirements of 13 major crops of the study area and suitable crops for each unit were identified. The individual suitability classes of all crops were compared using logical analysis and suitability crops for each land unit were determined under irrigated and rain-fed conditions. In order to integrate the results of these analyses and to suggest sustainable agricultural development measures, the study area was divided into 44 micro-watersheds. The information on land productivity, groundwater quality and existing land use/land cover patterns of the watershed were used to calculate land potential-utilisation index and groundwater potential-utilisation ratio for all micro-watersheds. All the results of land and water resources assessment were compared and a proposed land use map was prepared. The findings suggest strategies for coping with sustainable agricultural practices for the present study area and provide an integrated methodology for future assessments elsewhere, especially in the developing countries.

Groundwater quality assessment of wells in Ifewara, Osun state

Study was carried out in Ifewara, Osun state with an objective of evaluating the quality and suitability of local groundwater for domestic purposes. Twenty six groundwater samples from hand dug wells and one borehole sample and were subjected to physicochemical analysis. Results from the study shows that the cationic and anionic concentrations vary as follows: Na+(0.2-3.5 mg/l), K+ (0.1-15.1 mg/l) Ca2+ (16-96 mg/l), HCO3 - (16-176 mg/l), Mg2+ (3- 104 mg/l), NO3 -(0.18-11.43 mg/l), SO4 2-,(1.24-21.3 mg/l), Cl- (2-52 mg/l), and PO4(0.01-0.75 mg/l).The study also shows that the water is fresh with TDS value (avg. 93.8 mg/l) and a neutral pH (avg. 6.8) within the permissible range (6.5-8.5).Hydrogeochemical evaluation of the groundwater reveals that it is predominantly of the CaHCO3 type while others belong to the Mixed CaMgCl type. The water chemistry was observed to have been influenced by the dilution and weathering processes at shallow depth.KEYWORDS: Groundwater quality, fresh water, hydrogeochemical evaluation,

Geochemical characterization and evaluation of groundwater suitability for domestic and agricultural utility in semi-arid region of Basara, Telangana State, South India

Hydrogeochemical investigations were carried out in semi-arid region of Basara to estimate the quality of groundwater for its suitability for domestic and agricultural purposes. For this region 34 groundwater samples were collected in different locations and analyzed for various ions, viz., Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Cl−, HCO3−, SO42−, CO32−, HCO3−, NO3− and F− to assess the water chemistry with sodium absorption ratio, %Na, residual sodium carbonate, magnesium hazard. The nitrate and fluoride concentrations were above the maximum permissible limit, while calcium, sodium, potassium and chloride were found below the desirable limits in most of the groundwater samples. The Wilcox diagram illustrates that 59% of the samples belong to excellent to good category, while the US Salinity Laboratory diagram indicates medium salinity/low sodium content in 64.70% of samples. In general, the geochemistry of groundwater in Basara region is influenced by the water rock processes through percolation and dissolution of rock forming minerals, while calculated values of saturation index for Anhydrite, Aragonite, Artinite, Brucite, Calcite, Fluorite, Gypsum, Dolomite and Magnesite of the groundwater samples were less than zero, indicating under-saturation. Chadha rectangular diagram for geochemical classification and hydrochemical processes of groundwater for Basara provinces indicates 50% of Na+–Cl−, 29% of Ca2+–Mg2+–Cl− and 18% of the water samples concentrate in the category of Na+–HCO3− type.

Delineation of groundwater prospective resources by exploiting geo-spatial decision-making techniques for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is a water deficit and an arid land with limited fresh water supplies. Owing to the burgeoning population, ascending living standards and desert agriculture, there is a tremendous stress on the current water reserves. Towards such ends, this paper introduces a remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS)-based multi-factor decision-making system to identify the regions in Saudi Arabia with groundwater potential. The proposed model is capable of producing groundwater suitability map built on the synthesis of several hydrological factors such as rainfall, slope, lithological features, land use/land cover, geological structures, soil type, lineaments density and drainage network using an analytical hierarchical process. The synthesis of these parameters has resulted in improved rendering of groundwater probable hotspots in the study area. According to obtained results, 0.66% (587.90 km2), 38.97% (34162.12 km2), 58.55% (51328.34 km2), 1.8% (1588.36 km2) and 0.004% (3.26 km2) of the study area was ranked as ‘Best’, ‘Very good’, ‘Good’, ‘Fair’ and ‘Poor’, respectively. The delineated zones were validated by mapping water wells on the suitability map. The results showed that 35.88 and 62.35% of the water wells belong to ‘Very good’ and ‘Good’ regions, while 0.58 and 1.17% belong to ‘Best’ and ‘Fair’ regions. This indicates that model-generated results were in good agreement with the ground truth and majority of the existing wells belong to ‘Very good’ to ‘Good’ regions of the generated map. This demonstrated the potential of remote sensing and GIS techniques to successfully discover groundwater plausible regions which could be further exploited to find suitable locations for groundwater withdrawal.

Hydrochemical Assessment of Groundwater of Dibdibba Aquifer in Al-Zubair Area, Basra, South of Iraq and its Suitability for IrrigationPurposes

This study focuses on cation and anion concentrations and their distribution in the Dibdibba aquifer in the Zubair area at Basra city, southern Iraq to assess the groundwater quality for the agricultural purpose. The physicochemical properties (TSS, Ec, pH, cation and anion concentrations) of the groundwater samples through18 wells was measured. Results showed that the dominant groundwater type is Na, Mg, Ca-Chloride type. The Magnesium Hazard, Sodium Adsorption Ratio, Na%, total dissolved solid, Electrical conductivity and pH were used to assess the suitability of groundwater for irrigation purposes.. The assessment results indicate that the groundwater is characterized by no Mg-harmful, excellent with SAR and Na%, permissible with pH values, but unsuitable in terms of TDS and EC due to high salinity represented by Ca and Cl.

Evaluation of Groundwater Suitability for consumption in Yaychi area (Southwest Kirkuk city - North Iraq)

Groundwater suitability for consumption in the Yaychi area is determined by analyzing groundwater samples of 21 wells distributed in the area, for dry period which begin from May to October 2016 and wet period begin from October 2016 to May 2017. Results indicated that the temperature (T °C) have normal values and the water of low alkaline and excessively mineralized, while most of these samples, for both periods, are slightly – brackish water. The mean ion concentrations for two periods indicates that all major and secondary ions are higher than water quality standards for drinking purposes according to World Health Organization (WQI) and Iraqi Standard (IQS) except for K and Cl ions. The water in the study area is classified as very hard. Kurolov formula shows the presence of three predominant salts MgSO4, Na2SO4 and CaSO4, and the water origin in the area is meteoric water. The predominated of water types are earth alkaline water with increased portions of alkalis with prevailing sulfate and chloride and Normal earth alkaline water with prevailing sulphate or chloride. After comparing the ionic concentrations with the water quality standards for different purposes, it was found that groundwater in the area is unsuitable for human drinking, but it's suitable for building and livestock and for growing most types of crops, it is also suitable for irrigation purposes depending on the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), Soluble Sodium Percentage(Na%) and the Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC), and unfit for irrigation according to Magnesium Adsorption Ratio(MAR) index. The water in the study area is devoid of heavy metal pollution except (Fe), (Pb) which are shown in water of some wells.

Assessing groundwater hydrochemistry of Malwa Punjab, India

This study investigates the groundwater hydrochemistry (pH, EC, TDS, TH, SO42−, PO43−, NO3−, Na2+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, F− and Cl−) of intensively cultivated belt of Malwa Punjab, India. The groundwater was collected from 76 representative sites and analysed for different parameters. Results suggested that in the majority of locations, the TH, TDS, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+ and Cl− were within the limit as decided by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) for drinking purposes. The proportion of SO42− and PO43− was SO42− > PO43− mg/L in the majority of sampling locations. The Na+ was recorded in a high range 26.05 to 735.5 mg/L indicating Na-rich groundwater in this area. Fluoride ranged 1.59 to 5.07 mg/L in this region, higher than the than permissible range (1.5 mg/L). The NO3− was prominent anthropogenic mineral in groundwater. The suitability of groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes was also calculated. The water quality index (WQI) suggests that about 80.3% sites have low quality water, unsuitable for drinking purposes. The suitability of groundwater for irrigation purposes was evaluated using SAR and LSI value, which revealed that in the majority of areas, the groundwater is unfit for surface irrigations. This study revealed that overall groundwater of Malwa Punjab is not suitable for drinking as well as agricultural purposes due to excess of some natural and anthropogenic chemicals. The long-term uses of such water could pose serious soil and human health issues in this regions.

Groundwater Potential Zone Identification in the Crystalline Basement Rock Terrain of Liberia Using Integrated Remote Sensing and GIS

This paper presents groundwater favorability mapping of fractured crystalline bedrock terrain throughout Liberia with a focus on 43 selected health centers. The aim of this research is to create groundwater suitability maps to be used by the Liberian Ebola Emergency Response Project. Hydrogeological investigations can often be cost prohibitive, particularly in developing nations. Therefore, this study was performed using only publicly available free geospatial data. The materials acquired included a geologic map obtained from the USGS, a Digital Elevation Map, and images from Landsat 8. The data was analyzed with both remote sensing software and ArcGIS and processed to produce several thematic maps. The maps were combined in a multi-criteria analysis (weighted linear combination) to produce a variety of groundwater favorability maps. The results suggest significant spatial variability within 5 km of all selected health centers. These models will be further refined and may prove useful for the Emergency Response Project and future groundwater development in Liberia.

Groundwater Suitability for Domestic Use in an Industrial Area of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria

Groundwater Suitability for Domestic Use in an Industrial Area of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria

Hydrogeochemistry and Groundwater Quality Evaluation in a Part of Ratnagiri District Maharashtra

In the present work attempt has been made to determine the groundwater quality in four talukas of Ratnagiri district: Chiplun, Khed, Guhagar and Dapoli. Total 60 groundwater samples were collected from borewells and handpumps in premonsoon and postmonsoon season. The groundwater samples were analyzed for pH, EC, TDS, Ca, Na, Mg, K, HCO3, Cl, SO4, NO3, Fe and F to comprehend the hydrogeochemistry of the study area. The spatio temporal variation of the major cations and anions has been shown in interpolation maps. The groundwater has concentration of iron above permissible limit in the industrial area of LoteParshuram. Piper trilinear diagram has been plotted to understand the hydrochemical facies that showed that water is mainly Ca-Cl-HCO3 type. Durov diagram was used to know the hydrogeochemical nature of the groundwater. The scatter plot diagram of concentration of calcium and magnesium against bicarbonate and sulfate of groundwater indicates that silicate weathering is dominating the area. Chloro Alkaline Indices showed that there is direct exchange of ions in most of the samples. Trends in mineral saturation indices have been studied by the PHREEQC. The groundwater showed oversaturation of iron. Water quality index based on WHO parameters has been calculated which showed that majority of water samples are recommended for drinking purpose except few samples which have very high iron concentration. The suitability of groundwater for the purpose of Irrigation has been determined by evaluating parameters Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), sodium percent (% Na), Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC), Magnesium Ratio, Kelley Ratio and Permeability Index. The results showed that most of the groundwater samples are suitable for irrigation.

Hydrogeochemical and isotopic investigation and water quality assessment of groundwater in the Sisseb El Alem Nadhour Saouaf aquifer (SANS), northeastern Tunisia

In the Sisseb El Alem Nadhour Saouaf basin (SANS), as in all other arid regions, surface water is scarce and groundwater is the greatest most important source of water for all uses. This study aims to identify the processes governing groundwater mineralization in order to assess the suitability of the groundwater for drinking and agriculture purposes. This research used a geodatabase which includes information on hydrogeology, geochemistry, land cover, and geology. We identified the most important factors involved in the deterioration of water quality, including anhydrite and gypsum dissolution, silicate weathering, downward leakage between aquifers, evaporation, groundwater over-exploitation, and the overuse of fertilizers. Furthermore, the two following important factors were identified: the intrusion of Sebkhat El Kelbia and the vertical flow from the deep aquifer. Results were used to develop a conceptual geochemical model, wherein three geochemical regions were differentiated. Statistical techniques, such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) were used to confirm the water affinities and the presence of three different geochemical regions. The water quality index (WQI), Wilcox and Richards's diagrams were performed to assess the suitability of groundwater to drinking and irrigation purposes. These indexes confirm the fact that the groundwater of this aquifer is not suitable for irrigation, neither for drinking. Furthermore, 18O and deuterium isotope data indicate the importance of evaporation in the basin, and the recharge with modern rainfall.

Comprehensive characterisation of groundwater quality in and around a landfill area for agricultural suitability

Groundwater contamination has become so alarming that the existing valuable freshwater resources are at stake. Landfilling of solid refuse without pre-emptive measures, over the years, leads to the utter depletion of the groundwater quality in its vicinity. The Kodungaiyur landfill at the Perambur taluk located in the northernmost region of the Chennai metropolitan, is such a poorly managed landfill. This research article is intended to exhibit a detailed study report on the physicochemical and bacteriological parametric analyses of the currently available subsurface water in and around the landfill area. Besides being evident from the faecal coliform test that the water is not potable, the chief objective was to investigate the suitability of groundwater for irrigation. Representative samples of groundwater were collected from inside the landfill site, and the residential areas located within 2 km from the site and analysed using standard methods. The test results were interpreted by employing exhaustive statistical approaches. It is evident to the interpretations that, out of the nine sampled locations, seven were found to be endowed with a groundwater quality fit enough for irrigation.

Hydrogeochemical characterization and groundwater quality assessment in the intensive agricultural zone of the Upper Cheliff plain, Algeria

The alluvial aquifer of Upper Cheliff (northern Algeria) is known for its intensive agricultural activities, which is based especially on groundwater exploitation. This aquifer is now facing a dual problem of quantity and quality, with a decrease in the groundwater levels and an increase in mineralization. Twenty monitoring samples were collected and analyzed for major ion during the dry season 2014. In the present study, we try to characterize the hydrogeochemical processes and to assess the impact of natural and anthropogenic conditions on groundwater mineralization. The analytical results of the dry season 2014 show a groundwater quality slightly alkaline (pH > 7) and indicate that the majority of samples have a values exceeding the limits of potability fixed by WHO in 2008, due to the various sources of anthropogenic pollution. The Piper diagram shows the dominance of groundwater types: Ca–Cl, the mixed facies (Cl–SO4–Ca–Mg), and Ca–HCO3: The mineralization process in this aquifer is mainly controlled by the lithology of the aquifer (exchange water–rock and weathering of calcareous crust dissolution in the unsaturated zone), by anthropogenic factors (discharges of untreated urban sewage, intensive use of fertilizers in agriculture and the use of domestic septic tanks by rural inhabitants) and also by geoclimatic conditions (semiarid climate). Suitability of groundwater shows more than 80% of samples have very poor quality for drinking and more than 20% of samples indicate a quality unsuitable for irrigation.

Seasonal Hydrochemical Characterization and Groundwater Quality Delineation Based on Matter Element Extension Analysis in a Paper Wastewater Irrigation Area, Northwest China

The current study was carried out to delineate the seasonal hydrochemical characteristics and to quantify the suitability of groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes in an alluvial plain adjacent to a paper wastewater irrigation zone, northwest China. Groundwater samples were collected from 14 groundwater monitoring wells in pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, respectively. Statistical analysis and Chadha diagram were used to delineate the groundwater hydrochemical characteristics. The matter element extension analysis (MEEA) model was proposed to quantify the overall groundwater quality. Irrigation water quality indicators were applied to assess the suitability of groundwater for irrigation purpose. The research results show that the hydrochemical facies for the majority of the groundwater samples is SO4·Cl–Na type with some minor hydrochemical facies of HCO3–Ca·Mg, HCO3–Na, and Cl·SO4–Ca·Mg types. The sequences of ions are Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ for cations, and HCO3 − > Cl− > SO4 2− > CO3 2− for anions. The major ions and contaminants in the groundwater are controlled by multiple factors including hydrogeological conditions, rock weathering, water–rock interactions and human activities. The values of pH, TDS and TH show reduction in the monsoon season, indicating slight improvement of water quality during the monsoon season. Water quality assessment results based on MEEA show that the overall groundwater quality in the wastewater irrigation zone is generally fair to poor quality. Some groundwater samples are even classified as very poor quality, which is unsuitable for human consumption. They are also unsuitable for irrigation because of potential sodium hazard and salinity hazard. Groundwater from the Yellow River irrigation zone and the alluvial plain is generally suitable for domestic and irrigation uses. Some local water sampling locations may experience water quality improvement during the monsoon season, which, however, will generally not affect the final water quality classification for domestic and irrigation purposes. Interestingly, the study also finds that the variation trend of the correlation degree computed from MEEA can be useful in determining water quality improvement. This study may provide insights for people to make educated decisions in efficient groundwater quality protection and sustainable groundwater quality management.

Hydrochemical investigations of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigational purposes: two case studies of Koprivnica-Križevci County (Croatia) and district Allahabad (India)

The hydrochemical study was conducted to outline the suitability of groundwater for drinking and irrigational purposes of two distinctly located geographical areas, Koprivnica-Križevci County, Croatia and district Allahabad, India. A total 160 groundwater samples were collected from sources (in hot and cold seasons) of both countries during 2 years (2011–2012) to evaluate the recent hydrochemical status of groundwater. Samples were analyzed for 12 various physico-chemical parameters.The Koprivnica-Križevci County has Ca–HCO3 water type, whereas in Allahabad it prevails as Mg–HCO3. All the parameters were below the maximum acceptable value (MAV) of standards (WHO, US EPA, Indian and Croatian Standards). The usage and consumption of groundwater should be of no concern with regard to inorganic pollutants. Irrigational indices (residual sodium carbonate content, magnesium hazard, permeability index, exchangeable sodium percentage, and salinity hazard) showed that groundwater is suitable for irrigational purposes. Hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) has resulted into four groups due to the processes on natural and anthropogenic factors. The principal component analysis (PCA) has shown that first factor (all physico-chemical analyzed variables) explains 27.75% of the total variability and another factor (geographical distribution) accounts only for 10.46%. We found that local environmental conditions are more important predictor than geographical distribution. The present study may be helpful in dealing for further studies concerning groundwater quality issues in the distinctly located geographical areas. The groundwater quality is essential for management and sustainability of water resources, economic development, and human health.